mon pound, without food; and it would seem well, if there could be some remedy in this respect, and the constable or others were bound to give them sufficient food, to be repaid by the owner.

The use of the pound is, to put cattle in, which have been taken trespassing on other persons' land, and they are to remain there for some days, when the lord of the manor takes the cattle in his possession, and they are cried in three neighbouring market towns, and if not claimed within a year and a day, are sold as estrays, and the damage they have done is paid out of the produce.

POURSUIVANT, or PURSuivant, in heraldry, the lowest order of officers at arms. See COLLEGE and HERALDRY. The poursuivants are properly attendants on the heralds, when they marshal public ceremonies. Of these, in England, there were formerly many; but at present are only four, viz. Blue-mantle, Rouge cross, Rouge-dragon, and Portcullis.In Scotland there is only one king at arms, who is styled Lion, and has no less than six heralds, and as many pursuivants, and a great many messengers at arms, under him.

POWDER, a dry medicine, well broken, either in a mortar, by grinding, or by chemical operations. See PHARMACY. POWDER, fulminating. When three parts of nitre, two parts of potash, and one of sulphur, are previously well dried, and mixed together by trituration, they form a compound which is known by the name of fulminating powder. A few grains of this mixture, exposed to heat in an iron ladle, first melt, assuming a darker colour: and when the whole is in fusion, there is a violent explosion. The heat should be applied slowly and gradually, till it is completely fluid, and then, by bringing it nearer the heat, the full effect of the explosion is obtained. This combustion and explosion are also owing to the instantaneous evolution of elastic fluids. The potash unites with the sulphur, and forms a sulphuret, which, with the assistance of the nitre, is converted into sulphurated hydrogen. At a certain temperature, the sulphurated hydrogen gas is disengaged, along with the oxygen gas of the nitre, and suddenly taking fire, strikes the air by the explosion which accompanies the evolution of the gases.When the mixture is made with equal parts of nitre and solid sulphuret of potash, the detonation is more rapid, but the explosion is less violent. With three parts of nitre, one of sulphur, and one of sawVOL. X.

dust, well mixed together, what is called powder of fusion is formed. If a little of this powder is put into a walnut-shell, with a thin plate of copper rolled up, and the mixture set fire to, it detonates rapidly, and reduces the metal to a sulphuret, without any injury to the shell.

POWER, in mechanics, denotes any force, whether of a man, a horse, a spring, the wind, water, &c. which being applied to a machine, tends to produce motion.

The intensity of a power is its absolute force; that is, its force, supposing its velocity equal to its weight: for its moving or acting force may be greater or less, according as its velocity is increased or diminished, in respect of that of the weight. As, for example, if a man be the power, and can raise from the ground a certain weight, that weight will express or be equal to the intensity of the power; for in this case, whatever engine be made use of, that part of the engine where the weight is duly applied will move just as fast as that on which a man acts with his whole force. A power may act in any direction whatever; but a weight has only one direction, viz. towards the centre of the earth.

When we speak of the mechanical powers, the word power is taken in a very different sense from that above laid down; since, in this case, it signifies only an organ or instrument, whereby a power of a known intensity is made to act upon a weight; and, therefore, we must take care not to attribute any real force to any simple or compound machine, as many are apt to do, merely because the name power has been given to mechanical organs, not from their effect, but from the effect which the power produces by their means. For how much soever the force of a power is thereby increased, in order to sustain or raise a weight far superior to it in intensity, yet this cannot be done without losing in space and time what is gained in force; contrary to what some have vainly imagined, because the vulgar commonly speak of a machine as they do of an animal, attributing that effect to the machine, which is only the effect of the power by means of the machine: thus, it is usual to say, such a machine raises such a quantity of water, or performs such and such work; when we should say, if we would speak philosophically, such a running stream, such a fall of water, the wind, or so many men, horses, oxen, &c. raise so much water in such a time, &c. by means of such or such a machine. It S

were, therefore, to be wished, that the word power were to be confined to its proper sense, and not used to signify one of the mechanical organs; however, as it has been customary to use it in that sense, we have done so too, but have nevertheless thought proper to give the above caution. See MECHANICS.

POWER of Attorney, an instrument, or deed, whereby a person is authorised to act for another, either generally, or in a specific transaction.

This power is always revoked by the death of the grantor, and no person who has a power of attorney can grant a power under him.

POWERS, in arithmetic and algebra, are the products arising from the continual multiplication of a number, or quantity, into itself: thus, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. are the powers of the number 2; and a, a2, a3, at, &c. the powers of the quantity a; which operation is called involution. Powers of the same quantity are multiplied by only adding their exponents, and making their sum the exponent of the product: thus at X as = a4 +5 = α9. Again, the rule for dividing powers of the same quantity is, to subtract the exponents, and make the difference the exponent of a6

the quotient: thus, =a6—4— a2.

a4

Negative powers, as well as positive, are multiplied by adding, and divided by subtracting their exponents, as above. And, in general, any positive power of a, multiplied by a negative power of of an equal exponent, gives unit for the product; for the positive and negative destroy each other, and the product is a°, which is equal to unit.

=a-5+2 = a-3a3; and

1

a

Likewise,

a,

a-s a

a3= And, in general, any quantity placed in the denominator of a fraction may be transposed to the numerator, if the sign of its exponent be changed:

1

thus, = a-3, and

a3

To raise any simple quantity to its second, third, or fourth power, is to add its exponent twice, thrice, or four times, to itself; so that the second power of any quantity is had by doubling its exponent; and the third, by tripling its exponent; and, in general, the power expressed by m, of any quantity, is had by multiplying the exponent by m: thus the second power, or square of a, is a a2; its third power, a3 a3; and the mth power of a, is am*1 am. Also the square of a4, is a 4a8; the cube of a4, is a3*4 a; and the mth power of aa, is a4 m. The square of a b c, is a2 b2 c2; its cube a3 b3 c3; and the mth power, am ¿m cm.

=

1. When a question in the rule of three being duly stated, and the extremes are simple numbers of one name; whether the middle term be simple or mixed; if the extreme, which by the general rule is the divisor, be 1, and the middle term an aliquot part of some superior species; then divide the other extreme by the denominator of that aliquot part, the quote is the answer in that superior species; and if there is any remainder, it must be reduced, and its value found. Example. What is the price of 67 yards of cloth at 58. per yard? The state of the proportion is, as 1 yard: 5s. : : 67; and because the divisor is 1 yard, and the middle term 5s. which is a fourth part of one pound. Therefore divide 67 yards by 4, the quote is 16., and 3 remains, which reduced to shillings, and divided by 4, quotes 15s.

The reason of this practice is obvious; for if 1 yard cost one-fourth of 11. 67 yards must cost 67 4th parts, or which is the same thing, the fourth part of 671.

2. If the price of an unit is an even number of shillings, multiply the other extreme (of the same same with the unit) by the half of that number; double the first figure of the product for shillings, and the remaining figures to the left are pounds in the answer. Example. What is the value of 324 yards at 6s. per yard? Multiply 324 by 3 (the one-half of 6), the product is 972, which, according to the rule, is 977. 4s. which is the answer. And it is very easy to set down the shillings

and pounds separately, without writing first down the total product, and then separating them.

III. If the middle term is not an aliquot part of some superior integer, (the divisor being always 1,) yet it may be equal to the sum of several aliquot parts; and then if you divide by the denominators of each of these separately, and add all the quotes, the same is the answer required. Example. If 1 yard cost 15s. what cost 49 yards? Answer 361. 15s.: found thus ; 15s. is 10s. and 5s. viz. the one-half and one-fourth of a 17. ; so 1 take the one-half of 491. which is 247. 10s. and one-fourth, which is 121. 5s. whose sum is 367. 15s. IV. If the middle term is so mixed as to have in it any number of the highest species, first multiply the number, and then the other parts, by some of the former cases, if possible; and if this cannot be done, or not without much working, then the common method of reduction is to be taken. Example. If 1 yard cost 47. 6s. 8d. what cost 734 yards? Answer 3,180l. 15s. 4d.; for 47. multiplied by 734, produces 2,9361. and for 68. 8d. which is the one-third of 17. you must take the one-third of 734, which is 2441. 15s. 4d. and the sum of both is 3,180l. 13s. 4d.

V. If the extreme which is the multiplier is an aliquot part, or the sum of certain aliquot parts, of the unit, which is the divisor, then take by division such part or parts of the middle term (whether this be a simple or mixed number) and if the multiplier has also some number of the same species with the unit, you must work for that number separately by some of the former cases, or the common rule; then add all the parts, which is the an

swer.

Example 1. If 1 pound weight cost 321. what cost 4 ounces? Ans. 81. viz. onefourth of 321. because 4 ounces are onefourth of 1 pound.

These are the chief and fundamental practices by aliquot parts, which, whoever understands, will easily find many particular abridgements depending upon the same principles.

PRÆCIPE, is the name of several writs in the English law, which are so called from the form of commanding the defendant to do the thing required.

PRÆMUNIRE, is a punishment inflicted upon him who denies the King's supremacy the second time; upon him who affirms the authority of the Pope, or refuses to take the oath of supremacy; upon such as are seditious talkers of the inberitance of the crown; and upon such as

affirm that there is any obligation by any oath, covenant, or engagement whatsoeever,to endeavour a change of government either in church or state; or that both or either house of Parliament have or hath a legislative power without the King, &c. The judgment in præmunire at the suit of the King against the defendant, being in prison, is, that he shall be out of the King's protection; that his lands and tenements, goods and chattels shall be forfeited to the King; and that his body shall remain in prison at the King's pleasure; but if the defendant be condemned upon his default of not appearing, whether at the suit of the King or party, the same judgment shall be given as to the being out of the King's protection and the forfeiture; but instead of the clause that the body shall remain in prison, there shall be an award of a capiatur or arrest. Upon an indictment of a præmunire, a peer of the realm shall not be tried by his peers.

PRAGMATIC sanction, in the civil law, is defined by Hottoman to be a rescript, or answer of the sovereign, delivered, by advice of his council, to some college, order, or body of people, upon consulting him on some case of their community. The like answer, given to any particular person, is called simply rescript. The term pragmatic sanction, is chiefly applied to a settlement of Charles VI., Emperor of Germany, who, in the year 1722, having no sons, settled his hereditary dominions on his eldest daughter, the Archduchess Maria Theresa, which was confirmed by the diet of the Empire, and guaranteed by Great Britain, France, the States General, and most of the powers in Europe.

PRAM, or PRAME, a kind of lighter, used in Holland and the ports in the Baltic Sea, to carry the cargo of a merchant ship along-side, in order to lade it, or to bring it to the shore to be lodged in warehouses. The same term is in use in military affairs, for a kind of floating battery, being a flat bottomed vessel, which draws little water, mounts several guns, and is exceedingly useful in transporting troops over the immense lakes in North America.

PRASIUM, in botany, a genus of the Didynamia Gymnospermia class and order. Natural order of Verticillatæ. Labiatæ, Jussieu. Essential character: berries four, one-seeded. There are two species, viz. P. majus, great Spanish hedge-nettle, and P. minus, small Spanish hedge-nettle.

PRAYER, in theology, a petition put up to God, either for the obtaining some future favour, or the returning of thanks for a past one.

PREBEND, the maintenance a prebendary receives out of the estate of a cathedral or collegiate church. Prebends

are distinguished into simple and dignitary; a simple prebend has no more than the revenue for its support; but a prebend with dignity has always a jurisdic

tion annexed to it.

PREBENDARY, an ecclesiastic who enjoys a prebend. The difference between a prebendary and a canon is, that the former receives his prebend, in consideration of his officiating in the church; but the latter merely by his being received into the cathedral or college. PREBENDARY, golden, of Hereford, called also prebendarius episcopus, is one of the twenty-eight minor prebendaries, who has, ex-officio, the first canon's place that falls. He was anciently confessor of the bishop and cathedral, and had the offerings at the altar; on which account he was called the golden prebendary.

PRECEDENCE, or PRECEDENCY, a place of honour to which a person is entitled: this is either of courtesy or of right. The former is that which is due to age, estate, &c. which is regulated by custom and civility: the latter is settled by authority, and when broken in upon, gives an action at law.

The order of precedency, which is observed in general, is this: that persons of every degree of honour or dignity take place according to the seniority of their creation, and not of years, unless they are descended from the blood-royal; in which case, they have place of all others of the same degree.

The younger sons of the preceding rank take place from the eldest son of the next mediate, viz. the younger sons of Dukes from the eldest sons of Earls ; the younger sons of Earls from the eldest sons of Barons. All the chain of precedency is founded upon this gradation, and thus settled by act of parliament, 31 Henry VIII. c. 10, anno 1539.

But there have been since some alterations made in this act, by several decrees and establishments in the succeeding reigns, whereby all the sons of Viscounts and Barons are allowed to precede Baro

nets.

And the eldest sons and daughters of Baronets have place given them before the eldest sons and daughters of any Knights, of what degree or order soever,

though superior to that of a Baronet: these being but temporary dignities, whereas that of Baronets is hereditary: and the younger sons of Baronets are to have place next after the eldest of Knights.

who take place, although they are not There are some great officers of state, degrees; so there noblemen, above the nobility of higher who, for the dignities in their church, are some persons, degrees in the universities, and inns of court, officers in the state, or army, although they are neither knights, nor gentlemen born, yet take place amongst them. Thus, all colonels and field-officers who are honourable, as also the master of the ordnance, quarter-master gene. ral, doctors of divinity, law, physic, and music; deans, chancellors, prebendaries, heads of colleges in universities, and sergeants at law, are, by courtesy, allowed place before ordinary Esquires. And all bachelors of divinity, law, physic, and music; masters of arts, barristers in the inns of courts; lieutenant-colonels, majors, captains, and other commissioned military officers, and divers patent officers in the King's household, may equal, if not precede, any gentleman that has none of these qualifications.

In towns corporate, the inhabitants of cities are preferred to those of boroughs; and those who have borne magistracy to all others. And herein a younger alderman takes not precedency from his senior being knighted, or as being the elder Knight, as was the case of Alderman Craven, who, though no Knight, had place, as senior alderman, before all the rest who were Knights, at the coronation of King James. This is to be understood as to public meetings relating to the town; for it is doubted whether it will hold good in any neutral place. It has been also determined in the Earl Marshal's court of honour, that all who have been Lord Mayors of London shall every where take place of all Knights-bachelors, because they have been the King's lieutenants.

It is also quoted by Sir George Mackenzie, in his Observations on Precedency, that in the case of Sir John Crook, sergeant at law, it was adjudged by the judges in court, that such sergeants as were his seniors, though not knighted, should have preference, notwithstanding his knighthood. The precedency among men is as follows:

By the statute 31 Henry VIII. the Lord Great Chamberlain of England had place next Lord Privy Seal; but in the year 1714, the Marquis of Lindsey, then Hereditary Lord Great Chamberlain of England, being created Duke of Ancaster, &c. gave up the precedency as Lord Great Chamberlain from him and his heirs, except only when he or they shall be in the actual execution of the said office of Great Chamberlain of England, attending the person of the King or Queen for the time being, or introducing a Peer or Peers into the House of Lords, which was confirmed by statute 1 George I.

Lord High Constable
Earl Marshal

Lord High Admiral

above all of their degrees, viz. if Dukes, Lord Stewart of his Ma-above Dukes ; jesty's Household Lord Chamberlain of His Majesty's Household

if Earls, above Earls, &c. by statute 31 Henry VIII.

By the 23d article of the Union, which was confirmed by statute of 5 Queen Peers of Great Britain, and have rank Anne, c. 8. all peers of Scotland shall be next after the Peers of the like degree in England at the time of the Union, which commenced May 1, 1707, and before all Peers of Great Britain, of the like degree, created after the Union.

Speaker of the Hon. House of Commons.
Viscounts' eldest sons.
Earls' younger sons.
Barons' eldest sons.

Knights of the most noble order of the

Garter.

Privy Counsellors.

Chancellor of the Exchequer.

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.

The Peers of Ireland take place in England, at all public ceremonies, (except coronations) next the youngest English peer of the same degree.-Vide 1, 25, p. 61, in Officio Armorum Council Books, 4 Car. I. 28 June, 1629.

Lord Chief Justice of the King's Bench. Master of the Rolls.

Lord Chief Justice of the Common Pleas: Lord chief Baron of the Exchequer. Judges and Barons of the degree of the Coif of the said Courts, according to seniority. Bannerets made under the King's own royal standard, displayed in army royal in open war, by the King himself in person, for the term of their lives only, and no longer.

Viscounts' younger sons.

Barons' younger sons.

Baronets of England, Scotland, and
Ireland.

Bannerets not made by the King

himself in person.

Rot. Pat. X. Jac. I.

Parl. X. n. VIII.

Knights of the most honourable Order of the Bath.

Flag and field-officers.

The priority of signing any treaty, or public instrument, by public Ministers,