This valuable acquisition in the art of printing owes its invention to that enlightened and patriotic statesman, the present Earl Stanhope. The iron press, invented by this nobleman, is capable of ten times the force of the common press, with, perhaps, a tenth of the labour. In working upon this press, nothing is left to the judgment of the pressman but the beating.

To describe the construction of the Stanhope press would not only much exceed our limits, but would require a considerable number of plates, as its internal construction cannot be sufficiently delineated by any general view of it. It is, however, a most compact and curious machine, and is an invention altogether worthy of the genius of the nobleman who first constructed it. A very minute account of the nature and construction of every part of this press is given in Mr. Stower's Grammar.

The Stanhopian principle has been applied in the construction of the common press, but we understand not with that success which was at first expected. The presses, however, so formed, and first made by Mr. Baker, are superior to the common press, and produce a more clear and strong impression, especially from light forms; though the sharpness, as well as smoothness of impression, produced by the Stanhope press, from forms of pearl and nonpareil letter, is not to be expect ed from the common presses constructed on the Stanhopian principle. See ENGRAVING, and CALICO PRINTING.

In an article of this nature, it would argue a want of taste or discernment to omit the mention of Mr. M'Creery's very elegant and beautiful poem, entitled The Press," published as a specimen of typography. It is indeed a beautiful work, and does great credit both to the genius of the author as a poet, and to his care and talents as a printer. It is published by Messrs. Cadell and Davies, in the

Strand.

PRINTING, stereotype. Perhaps it would not have been improper to have treated of stereotype printing even before that of common printing: for the first ideas of this art were certainly anterior to those of printing by moveable types.

The method of printing linen and paper for hangings has been known in the east from time immemorial. Printing from wooden blocks, by the Jesuits, has been practised above sixteen hundred years in China. According to this plan, when an author chooses to print his work,

he has it fairly transcribed upon a thin and transparent paper. Each leaf is then reversed and fastened upon a smooth block of hard wood, upon which the engraver cuts the characters, in relief. There must be, therefore, a separate block for every page.

At the end of the fourteenth and beginning of the fifteenth century, the Italians, Germans, Flemings, and Dutch, began at the same time to engrave on wood and copper, but the previous advances had been gradual. The inscriptions, in relief, upon monuments and altars, in the cloisters and over church porches, served as models for block-printing. The letters upon painted windows greatly resemble those in the books of images. The invention of cards was an intermediate step. Bullet, in his "Recherches Historiques sur les Cartes à jouer," has proved from old chronicles, in particular from that of Petit-Jean de Sanitre, from edicts civil and ecclesiastical, and from the figures of the cards, that they were invented towards Charles the Fifth's reign, about the year 1376. By the shape of the crowns and the sceptres with the fleur de lis, he infers that the French invented them. They soon were introduced into Spain, Italy, Germany, and Eng. land. The names of the suits seem ra ther to imply a Spanish or Italian origin. At first the cards were painted; about the year 1400, a method was devised of printing them from blocks. To this we may directly trace the art of printing. The books of images form the next step. These also were printed from wooden blocks; one side of the leaf only is impressed, and the corresponding text placed below, beside, or proceeding from the mouth of the figure. Of these scarce books, M. Lambinet mentions seven: 1. Figuræ typicæ veteris atque antitypica novi testamenti. This is the work which in Germany is called the Bible of the Poor, because it was originally designed as an abridgment of the Bible for those who could not purchase the whole Scriptures in manuscript, and who probably could not read. There is one copy of this work in the Bodleian Library, and another at Christ's College, Cambridge. 2. Historia S. Joannis Evangelista, ejusque visionis apocalypticæ. 3. Historia seu Providentia Virginis Mariæ, ex cautico cauticorum. 4. Ars Moriendi. memorandi notabilis per figuras Evangi listarum. 6. Donatus, seu grammatica brevis in usum scolarum conscripta. It is not easy to conceive how this can be

Ars

classed among the books of images. 7. Speculum humanæ salvationis. There is said to be an English translation of this work. Two other books of images, the Tewrdanck, and the Triumpf-wagen, are posterior to the common use of printing. It is clear, therefore, from the cotton and silk printing of the Indians, the Chinese block-printing, and these books of images, and, perhaps, also, from the bardic mode of writing, who cut their poems upon bars of wood, arranged like a gridiron, and which they called carving a book, that the idea of stereotype printing is by no means of modern origin. That it was prior to the art of printing with moveable types there can be no doubt; since this latter mode of printing was first suggested by the Catholicon, which was printed with wooden tablets, in a series, and composed in forms. This mode of printing, except in China, where it is still practised, was laid aside soon after the invention of the common letterpress printing.

The history of the invention of modern stereotype is, like that of common printing, involved in some obscurity as to the name of the person, to whom justly belongs the honour of an invention so use. ful and curious. Mr. Andrew Tilloch, the worthy and ingenious editor of the Philosophical Magazine, has given the following extract, translated from Niewe Algemein Konst en Letter Bode, 1798, No. 232, which deserves particularly to be noticed. "Above a hundred years ago the Dutch were in possession of the art of printing with solid or fixed types, which in every respect was superior to that of Didot's stereotype. It may, how ever, be readily comprehended, that their letters were not cut in so elegant a manner, especially when we reflect on the progress which typography has made since that period. Samuel and J. Leuchtmans, booksellers at Leyden, have still in their possession the forms of a quarto Bible, which were constructed in this ingenious manner. Many thousand impressions were thrown off, which are in every body's hands, and the letters are still good.

"The inventor of this useful art was J. Vander Mey, father of the well-known painter of that name. About the end of the sixteenth century he resided at Ley

den.

With the assistance of Muller, the clergyman of the German congregation there, who carefully superintended the correction, he prepared and cast the plates for the above-mentioned quarto

Bible. This Bible he published also in folio, with large margins, ornamented with figures; the forms of which are still in the hands of Elwe, bookseller at Amsterdam: also an English New Testament, and Schaaf's Syriac Dictionary; the forms of which were melted down : likewise a small Greek Testament, in 18mo.

"As far as is known, Vander Mey printed nothing else in this manner; and the art of preparing solid blocks was lost at his death, or at least was not afterwards employed." The Dutch editor supposes that the reason why Vander Mey's invention was dropped was, that, “though this process in itself is very advantageous, it is far more expensive than the usual method of printing, except in those cases where such works are to be printed as are indispensably necessary, and of standing worth." Mr. Tilloch, however, is of a directly contrary opinion.

In the year 1781 was printed, by and for J. Nichols, London, a very interesting pamphlet, entitled Biographical Memoirs of William Ged; including a particular account of his progress in the art of block-printing. The first part of the pamphlet was printed from a MS., dictated by Ged some time before his death; the second part was written by his daughter, for whose benefit the profits of the publication were intended; the third is a copy of proposals that had been published by Mr. Ged's son, in 1751, for reviving his father's art, and to the whole is added Mr. Mores's Narrative of Block Printing.

It appears from this publication, that, in the year 1725, Mr. Ged began to prosecute plate-printing. In 1727, he entered into a contract with a person who had a little capital, but who, on conversing with some printer, got so intimidated, that, at the end of two years, he had laid out only twenty-two pounds, In 1729, he entered into a new contract with a Mr. Fenner, Thomas James, a type-founder, and John James, the architect. Some time after, a privilege was obtained from the University of Cambridge, to print bibles and prayer-books; but it appears, that one of his partners was actually averse to the success of the plan, and engaged such people for the work as he thought most likely to spoil it. A straggling workman, who had wrought with them, informed Mr. Mores, that both bibles and common prayer-books had been printed; but that the composi tors, when they corrected one fault,

made purposely half a dozen more; and the pressmen, when the masters were ab. sent, battered the letter in aid of the compositors. In consequence of these base proceedings, the books were suppressed by authority, and the plates sent to the King's printing-house, and from thence to Mr. Caslon's foundry. "After much ill usage," says Mr. Tilloch, "Ged, who appears to have been a person of great honesty and simplicity, returned to Edinburgh. His friends were anxious that a specimen of his art should be pubJished, which was at last done by subscription. His son, James Ged, who had been apprenticed to a printer, with the consent of his master, set up the forms in the night-time, when the other compositors were gone, for his father to cast the plates from; by which means Sallust was finished in 1736." Mr. Tilloch has not only a copy of this work, but also "the plate of one of the pages." Besides Sallust, Mr. Tilloch has another work, printed some years after, from plates of Mr. Ged's manufacture. The book is, The Life of God in the Soul of Man, printed on a writing pot, 12mo, and with the following imprint: "Newcastle, printed and sold by John White, from plates made by William Ged, goldsmith, in Edinburgh, 1742."

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Fifty years after the invention of plateprinting by Mr. Ged, Mr. Tilloch made a similar discovery, without having, at the time, any knowledge of Ged's invention. In perfecting the invention, Mr. Tilloch had the assistance and joint labour of Mr. Foulis, printer to the university of Glasgow. After great labour, and many experiments, these gentlemen overcame every difficulty, and were able to produce plates, the impressions from which could not be distinguished from those taken from the types from which they were cast." "Though we had reason to fear," says Mr. Tilloch, "from what we [afterwards] found Ged had met with, that our efforts would experience a similar opposition from prejudice and ignorance, we persevered in our object for a considerable time, and at last resolved to take out patents for England and Scotland, to secure ourselves, for the usual term, the benefits of our invention; for the discovery was still as much our own as if nothing similar had been practised before. Ged's knowledge of the art having died with his son, whose proposals for reviving it, published in 1751, not having been followed with success, he went to Jamaica, where he died. The

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patents were accordingly obtained; nay. they are even expired; and yet we hear people, who only began their stereotype labours yesterday, taking to themselves the merit or being the first inventors!" Owing to circumstances of a private na-, ture," not, however, connected with the stereotype art, the business was laid aside, for a time; and Mr. Tilloch having removed from Glasgow to London, the concern was dropped altogether; not, however, till several small volumes had been stereotyped and printed, under the direction of Messrs. Tilloch and Foulis.

Some time elapsed after this, when Didot, the celebrated French printer, applied the stereotype art to logarithmic tables, and afterwards to several of the Latin classics, and to various French publications. It has been said, by the French, that the merit of the invention properly belongs to Didot; but by what we have already laid before our readers, it is evident this cannot have been the case.

Some years after Mr. Tilloch had given up the prosecution of this art, Mr. Wilson, a printer of respectability in London, engaged with Earl Stanhope for the purpose of bringing it to perfection, and eventually to establish it in this country. His Lordship, it is said, received his instructions from Mr. Tilloch, and had afterwards the personal attendance of Mr. Foulis, for many months, at his seat, at Chevening, where his Lordship was initiated in the practical part of the operation.

After two years application, Mr. Wilson announced to the public, that the ge nius and perseverance of Earl Stanhope, whom he styles "the Right Honourable Inventor," had overcome every difficulty; and that, accordingly, the various proces ses of the stereotype art had been so admirably contrived, combining the most beautiful simplicity with the most desira ble economy, the ne plus ultra of perfec tion, with that of cheapness, as to yield the best encouragement to the public for looking forward to the happy period, when an application of this valuable art to the manufacture of books would be the means of reducing the prices of all standard works at least thirty, and in many cases fifty, per cent.

In January, 1804, the stereotype art, (with the approbation of Lord Stanhope,) was offered by Mr. Wilson to the University of Cambridge, for their adoption and use in the printing of bibles, testaments, and prayer-books, upon certain terms and conditions highly advantageous

to Mr. Wilson; for, with his lordship's characteristic generosity, Earl Stanhope has uniformly declined to accept even the reimbursement of any part of the monies by him expended in the prosecution of this ingenious art. Some differences, however, arising between Mr. Wilson and the Syndics of the University, the contract was dissolved; and Mr. Wilson published his case in a stereotyped pamphlet, entitled, "Arbitration between the University of Cambridge and Andrew Wilson."

That Mr. Wilson might make out his case more clearly, he has given a "Computation of the nonpareil bible,-showing the expenditure by both methods of printing, upon composition, reading, wear of type, and charges of composition; and upon paper, press-work, charges on press-work, and insurance." This computation is, of course, much in favour of the stereotype art; amounting, indeed, to nearly one half, or fifty per cent. saved by the new method. In addition to the saving attributed to stereotype printing, it is said that, as every page of the most extensive work, has a separate plate, all the pages of the said work must be equally new and beautiful: which cannot be the case with single types, which are distributed and recomposed several times over in the course of a large work. The stereotype art also, it is said, possesses a security against error. This advantage is much insisted on by the friends of the art; but with what consistency, we confess, does not immediately appear: for, strange as it may seem, after all the care that we may naturally suppose was taken to render Mr. Wilson's pamphlet a model of stereotype perfection, it is still not without its errata. The pamphlet consists of about forty-four pages; and on the forty-first page, in a line containing only two monosyllables, there is an error: (viz.) viod for void. There are one or two other trifling inaccuracies in the pamphlet, which afford demonstrative proof that

"Whoever thinks a faultless piece to

see,

Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be."

Indeed, as every work hitherto stereotyped, clearly manifests, it is not possible that first editions of works should be more correct when stereotyped than when printed in the common way; and it ought not to be forgotten, that an error

stereotyped in the first edition, is perpetuated through every subsequent edi tion. It is said, that stereotype plates admit of alteration: this, however, if carried to any extent, must be attended with a very considerable expense.

In short, we think that the stereotype art has much the advantage of common printing in standard books of very extensive circulation and constant demand, and wherein no alteration, as to plan or size, is allowed ever to take place; but for the common and most general purposes of the art of printing, the method by moveable types is incomparably the best.

The precise method adopted in stereotype printing being hitherto a secret known only to a few, our reader will perceive that we can only, as we have done, give a general history of the invention. The mode of stereotype printing is, however, generally, first to set up a page, for instance, in the common way, with moveable types; and when it is rendered as correct as the nature of the thing will admit, a cast is taken from it, and in this cast, the metal for the stereotype plate is poured; and so for every page or sheet of a work intended to be stereotyped. When the plates are prepared, they are printed off at the Stanhope press; and it must be confessed, that the works hitherto published, that have been printed in this manner, are very beautiful, and to the full as correct as the best editions of books printed according to the common method. But as it does not appear that any actual saving can be obtained in the manufacture of books in general, the London publishers have not yet thought it worth their while to patronize and encourage this curious invention.

PRISM, in geometry, an oblong solid, contained under more than four planes, whose bases are equal, parallel, and alike situated. The prism is generated by the motion of a rectilinear figure, descending always parallel to itself, along a right line. If the describent be a triangle, the body is said to be a triangular prism; if square, a quadrangular one, &c.

From the genesis of the prism, it is evident it has two equal and opposite bases, and is terminated by as many parallelograms as the base consists of sides: and that all the sections of a prism parallel to its base are equal. Every triangular prism may be divided into three equal pyramids.

To measure the surface of any prism, find the area of each side, whether a triangle, parallelogram, or other rectili

near figure, as directed under these articles, and the sum of all these, taken together, is the whole superficies of the prism. The solid content of a given prism may be found thus: let the area of the base of the prism be measured, as directed under the article MENSURATION; and let this area be multiplied by the height of the prism, and the product will give the solid content of the prism.

PRISM, in dioptrics, a triangular glassprism, much used in experiments about the nature of light and colours. See Or

TICS.

PRISTIS, the saw-fish, in natural history, a genus of fishes of the order Cartilaginei. It may be with more propriety considered as a species of the squalus, or shark, and as such is regarded by Shaw. The saw-fish inhabits the Mediterranean, and was known to the Greeks and Romans by the name of pristis. It grows to the length of sixteen feet, and the general length of the snout is about one-third of that of the whole fish. There are three varieties, in which the difference is confined to the size and the snout.

PRIVATEERS, in maritime affairs, a kind of private ships of war, fitted out by private persons at their own expense; who have leave granted them to keep what they can take from the enemy, allowing the Admiral his share.

PRIVY council, is the principal council belonging to the King, and is generally called, by way of eminence, the council. Privy Counsellors are made by the King's nomination, without either patent or grant; and on taking the necessary oaths, they become immediately Privy Counsellors, during the life of the King that chooses them, but subject to removal at his discretion. No inconvenience now arises from the extension of the number of the Privy Council, as those only attend who are especially summoned for that particular occasion.

PRIZE, in maritime affairs, a vessel taken at sea from the enemies of a state, or from pirates; and that either by a man of war, a privateer, &c. having a commission for that purpose. Vessels are looked on as prize, if they fight under any other standard than that of the state from which they have their commission; if they have no charter-party, invoice, or bill of lading aboard; if loaded with effects belonging to the King's enemies, or with contraband goods. Those of the King's subjects recovered from the enemy, after remaining twenty-four hours in their hands, are deemed lawful prize.

Vessels that refuse to strike may be constrained; and if they make resistance and fight, become lawful prize, if taken. If ships of war, the prizes are to be divided among the officers, seamen, &c. as his Majesty shall appoint by proclamation; but among privateers, the division is according to the agreement between the owners. By statute 13 George II. c. 4. judges and officers, failing of their duty, in respect to the condemnation of prizes, forfeit 500l. with full costs of suit; one moiety to the King, and the other to the informer.

PROBABILITY is nothing but the appearance of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas, by the intervention of proofs whose connection is not constant and immutable, or is not perceived to be so; but is, or appears for the most part to be so; and is enough to induce the mind to judge the proposition true or false, rather than the contrary.

Of probability there are degrees, from the neighbourhood of certainty and demonstration, quite down to improbability and unlikeness, even to the confines of impossibility; and also degrees of assent, from certain knowledge, and, what is next to it, full assurance and confidence, quite down to conjecture, doubt, distrust, and disbelief. That proposition then is probable, for which there are arguments, or proof, to make it pass or be received for true. Probability being then to supply the defect of our knowledge, is always conversant about a thing whereof we have no certainty, but only some inducements to receive it for true. The grounds of it are, in short, these two following: First, the conformity of any thing with our own knowledge, experience, or observation. Secondly, the testimony of others vouching their observation and experience. In the testimony of others, is to be considered, 1. the number; 2. the integrity; 3. the skill of the witnesses; 4. the design of the author, if it be a testimony cited out of a book; 5. the consistency of the parts and circumstances of the relation : 6. contrary testimonies. The mind, before it rationally assents or dissents to any probable proposition, ought to examine all the grounds of probability, and see how they make, more or less, for or against it; and, upon a due balancing the whole, reject or receive it, with a more or less firm assent, according to the preponderance of the greater grounds of probability on one side or the other.

PROBABILITY of an event, in the Doc