to be their own masters; but at a later period, probably whilst the Ptolemies were reigning over Egypt, they either moved their capital further south to a site on the fertile plain which is bounded by the Atbara and the Nile and the Blue Nile, and is commonly called the "Island of Meroë," or were succeeded in their sovereignty by another branch of the same race as they themselves who were indigenous to the province. The princes of Meroë built temples with ante-chapels, pylons, courts, hypostyle halls, sanctuary chambers, etc., taking as their models the temples of Napata, which in turn were copied from the temples of Egypt, and they decorated them with bas-reliefs and scenes, and inscriptions, chiefly in the hieroglyphic character. Their buildings lack the beauty and finish of the temples of Egypt, but many of them must have been grand and impressive. In the third century B.C., one of the kings of Northern Nubia called Arq-Åmen was a great friend of Ptolemy II, Ptolemy III, and Ptolemy IV, and his authority in the north appears to have extended to Philae. The Ptolemies had no dominion over Nubia, but they carried on a brisk trade in the Eastern Sûdân by way of the Red Sea, and they had large numbers of elephants brought from there. The gold trade seems to have declined at this period, either because the mines were exhausted, or because the veins of quartz were so far below the surface that the working of them had become very difficult.

Probably about B.C. 200 the rulers of the Southern Kingdom succeeded in overcoming the kings of Napata, and the central power in the Egyptian Sûdân established its capital on the Island of Meroë. This region was, about this time, and for several generations later, ruled by Queens of Meroë, each of whom bore the title of "Candace." Strabo (XVII, 1, 54) speaks of the "officers of Candace,” and Pliny says (VI, 30) that "a female, whose name was Candace, ruled over the district, that name having passed

66

from queen to queen for many years." Lepsius thought that he had found the original of the name Candace" in one of the names of Queen Amen

www

arit, who built Pyramid No. 1 of Group A at Meroë. The transcription of the signs in this cartouche is, however, KENTHAḤEBIT, which does not suit the theory; moreover, this queen is the only one who bears the name of "Kenthahebit," and if it was the equivalent of "Candace," other queens must have been called by it.

In the first century B.C. the Northern Kingdom appears to have been ruled by nominees of the Queens of Meroë, and about B.C. 30 it seems that the Nubians made an attempt to assert a supremacy over Upper Egypt. The great queen who built temples at Nagaa and Wâd Bâ Nagaa also built a temple at 'Amâra, about 120 miles from Wâdî Ḥalfa, and this probably caused a dispute between herself and the Romans who, on the death of Cleopatra, became masters of Egypt. "Candace" sent a force to the north, seized Philae, Elephantine, and Syene, and made all the people there slaves. In B.C. 24 Aelius Gallus invaded Nubia, destroyed the forces of Candace, laid waste the country, and captured her capital Napata. Candace was obliged to send messengers to Rome to sue for peace and the restitution of her territories.

During the first three centuries of the Christian Era the Blemmyes of the Eastern Desert, and the Nobadae of the Western Desert, gave the Romans a great deal of trouble, and the Emperor Diocletian (284-305) was obliged to make them an annual payment to prevent them from harassing Roman dominions. In 453 these wild tribes. made an agreement with the Romans to keep the peace for 100 years and, on the whole they observed their promise fairly well. Meanwhile Christians had been steadily making their way into Nubia from the first century onwards, and

before 550 a native Christian king called Silko succeeded in defeating the Nobadae tribes, and in making himself master of all Nubia. He made the town of Dongola his capital, and Christianity became the official religion of the country. The form of Christianity which he professed was that of the Egyptian Jacobites, who acknowledged the Patriarch of Alexandria as their head. The Liturgy used in the Nubian churches was in Greek, and the Scriptures were read in Greek, and the churches were decorated with frescoes containing figures of the Apostles and other saints, after the manner of the churches in Alexandria. Later the Nubian Christians adopted Byzantine methods of decora tion, and as late as the 14th century churches were in existence on the Island of Meroë, which in form and internal ornamentation resembled the churches of Constantinople.

Of the manners and customs of the Nubians or Ethiopians classical writers do not speak very highly. Strabo (XVII, 2, § 2 ff.) says that they went naked for the most part; that they were nomadic shepherds of sheep, goats, and oxen, which were very small. They lived on millet and barley, from which also a drink was prepared, and made use of butter and fat instead of oil. They fought with bows and arrows, and some of their soldiers were armed with leather shields. They worshipped Hercules, Isis and Pan (by which we may understand Amen-Rā, Mut, and Khonsu), and believed in one god who was immortal, and in another who was mortal and without a name. It is clear though that Strabo often refers to tribes and peoples who lived south of Khartûm, and that he treats them all as Ethiopians or Nubians.

Modern History of the Sûdân.-Soon after the Conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al 'Âsî in 640, the Muslims marched into Nubia, and having conquered the king of Dongola they fixed the "Bakt" or tribute which the country was to pay annually to the Arabs. A formal treaty was

drawn up and signed by representatives of the Arabs and Nubians and, on the whole, the latter observed it very well. In 878 the Nubians rebelled and were punished In 956 the Muslims took Primis, and in 969 Gawhar invited the king of Nubia to turn a Muḥammadan. In 1005 the Nubians overran Egypt. In 1173 Shams ad-Dawlah Tûrân Shâh invaded Nubia because the king refused to pay the tribute. He took Ibrîm, destroyed the city, and captured 700,000 prisoners. In 1275 the Muslims annexed the Sûdân. In 1287 the Muslims raided the country far to the south of Dongola. In 1365 the Nubian tribe of Kanz seized Aswân. About 1500 the Fùng tribes finally destroyed the Christian Kingdom of Alwa, and set up a king whose capital was at Sennaar. In 1517 Selim captured Egypt, and sent troops by sea to Masawa to occupy the Sûdân. The Fûngs, however, held their own and continued to be masters of the country. From Egypt numbers of Turkish and Bosnian troops entered Nubia viâ Aswân, and they took possession of the Nile Valley as far south as the Fourth Cataract. The rule of the Fûngs lasted from 1505 to the end of the XVIIIth century. In other parts of the Sûdân there reigned: 1. The 'Abdallåt Shekhs, ie., 18 kings in about 230 years. 2. The Kings of Fâzôgli, i.e., 17 kings in 215 years. 3. The Kings of Shendi, i.e., 16 kings in 215 years. 4. The Sulțâns of Dår Fûr, i.e., 26 Sulțâns in 420 years (A.D. 1445-1865). The Sûdân was invaded in 1820 by Muḥammad 'Ali, who wished to recruit his army from its tribes, and to collect a revenue from it. He had heard that there was much gold in the country, and he determined to get possession of it. He decided to form an army of Sûdânî men, and the raids which he made to obtain men laid the foundation of one of the most hideous phases of the slave trade. The army he sent was under the command of his son Ismâ'îl, and its success was decisive. Ismâ'îl occupied Berber and

Shendî, and then advanced to Sennaar. In 1821 Ismail ascended the Blue Nile, plundering the tribes as he went. and his brother Ibrahîm led a force up the White Nile. Dâr Fûr and Kordôfân were annexed by the Defterdar Muḥammad, the son-in-law of Muḥammad 'Ali, and he perpetrated terrible atrocities. On the east the Egyptian force reached Tomat on the Atbara, and in the south they invaded the Dinka country. When Ismâ'il returned to Shendî he and his nobles were invited to dinner by Nimr the Mekh, or governor, and when all were merry, the palace was set on fire, and the Egyptians were burned to death. Muhammad 'Alî promptly sent a third expedition into the Sûdân, and punished the people for the death of his son, and a terrible massacre took place at Shendî. In 1822 the modern town of Kharțûm was founded. In 1834 Khurshid Pâshâ conquered the Abyssinians at the Battle of Sennaar, and thus the whole of the Sûdân was "Egyptianized." Muḥammad 'Ali was disappointed with the Sûdân, because it did not yield gold enough for his needs, and the chief results of his invasion were the destruction of the ivory trade, caravans ceased to exist as business concerns, and the slave trade flourished as it had never done before.

In 1841 a serious revolt at Kasala was quelled by Muḥammad 'Ali's troops, and the Sûdân was divided into the provinces of Fâzôglî, Sennaar, Kharțûm, Taka (Kasala), Berber, Dongola, Kordôfân. Sa'id Pâshâ visited the Sûdân in 1856, and carried out a number of valuable reforms; above all he reduced taxation on irrigation, and abolished the collection of taxes by soldiers. He was in favour of evacuating the Sûdân, and only gave up the idea at the earnest entreaties of the shêkhs. In 1865 another revolt broke out at Kasala, and when it was suppressed by Mazhar Pâshâ the Sûdânî soldiers who had garrisoned the town were sent to Egypt.

In 1870 the copper mines of