and turn our attention to the Roman affairs, which are still more interefting, both on their own account, and from the relation in which they ftand to thofe of modern Europe.

B. C.

753.

The character of Romulus, the founder of the Roman ftate, when we view him as the leader of a few lawless and wandering banditti, is an object of extreme infignificance. But when we confider him as the founder of an empire as extenfive as the world, and whose progress and decline have occafioned the two greateft revolutions that ever happened in Europe, we cannot but be interested in his conduct. His difpofition was extremely martial: and the political ftate of Italy, divided into a number of fmall but independent diftricts, afforded a noble field for the display of military talents. Romulus was continually embroiled with one or other of his neighbours; and war was the only employment by which he and his companions expected not only to aggrandife themfelves, but even to fubfiit. In the conduct of his wars with the neighbouring people, we may obferve an adherence to the fame maxims by which the Romans afterwards became mafters of the world. Inftead of deftroying the nations he had subjected, he united them to the Roman ftate; whereby Rome acquired a new acceffion of ftrength. from every war fhe undertook, and became powerful and populous from that very circumftance which ruins and depopulates other kingdoms. If the enemies with whom he contended had, by means of the art or arms they employed, any confiderable advantage, Romulus immediately adopted that practice or the use of that weapon, and improved the military fyftem of the Romans by the united experience of all their enemies. Of both thefe maxims we have an example in the war with the Sabines. Romulus, having conquered that nation, not only united them to the Romans, but, finding their buckler preferable to the Roman, inftantly threw afide the latter, and made ufe of the Sabine buckler in fighting against other states. Romulus, though principally attached to war, did not altogether neglect the civil polity of his infant kingdom. He inftituted what was called the Senate, a court originally compofed of a hundred perfons diftinguished for their wisdom and experience. He enacted laws for the adminiftration of juftice, and for bridling the fierce and unruly paffions of his followers; and, after a long reign fpent in promoting the civil and military interefts of his country, was, according to the most proba- B. C. ble conjecture, privately affaffinated by fome of the members of that senate which he had himself instituted.

717.

The fucceffors of Romulus were all very extraordinary perfonages. Numa, who came next after him, established the religious ceremonies of the Romans, and infpired them with that veneration for an oath, which was ever after the foul of their military difcipline. Tullus Hoftilius, Ancus Martius, Tarquinius Prifcus, and Servius Tullius, laboured, each during his reign, for the greatness of Rome. But Tarquinius Superbus, the feventh and laft king, having obtained the crown by the execrable murder of his father-in-law Servius, continued to fupport it by the most cruel and infamous tyranny. This, together with the infolence of his fon Sextus Tarquinius, who, by difhonouring Lucretia, a Roman lady, affronted the whole nation, occafioned the expulfion B. C. of the Tarquin family, and with it the diffolution of the regal goAs the Romans, however, were continually engaged in war, they found it neceffary to have fome officer invefted with fupreme authority, who might conduct them to the field, and regulate their military enterprises. In the room of the kings, therefore, they

509.

the fame jealoufy, fucceeded to all the powers of their former fove reigns. This revolution was very favourable to the Roman power and grandeur. The confuls, who enjoyed but a temporary power, were defirous of fignalifing their reign by fome great action: each vied with thofe who had gone before him, and the Romans were daily led out against fome new enemy. When we add to this, that the people, naturally warlike, were infpired to deeds of valour by every confideration which could excite them, that the citizens of Rome were all foldiers, and fought for their lands, their children, and their liberties,-we shall not be furprised that they fhould, in the course of some centuries, extend their power over all Italy.

The Romans, now fecure at home, and finding no enemy to contend with in Italy, turned their eyes abroad, and met with a powerful rival in the Carthaginians. This ftate had been founded or enlarged on the coaft of the Mediterranean in Africa, fome time before Rome, by a colony of Phoenicians, anno B. C. 869; and, according to the practice of their mother-country, they had cultivated commerce and naval greatnefs.

Carthage, in this defign, had proved wonderfully fuccefsful. She now commanded both fides of the Mediterranean. Besides that of Africa, which she almost entirely poffeffed, the had extended herself on the Spanish fide through the Straits. Thus miftrefs of the fea and of commerce, fhe had feized on the islands of Corfica and Sardinia. Sicily had difficulty to defend itfelf; and the Romans were too nearly threatB. C. ened, not to take up arms. Hence a fucceffion of hoftilities be264. tween these rival ftates, known in history by the name of Punic wars, in which the Carthaginians, with all their wealth and power, were an unequal match for the Romans Carthage was a powerful republic when Rome was an inconfiderable ftate; but he was now become corrupt and effeminate, while Rome was in the vigour of her political confiitution. Carthage employed mercenaries to carry on her wars; Rome, as we have already mentioned, was compofed of foldiers. The first war with Carthage lafted twenty-three years, and taught the Romans the art of fighting on the fea, with which they had hitherto been unacquainted. A

Carthaginian veffel was wrecked on their coaft; they used it for a B. C. model; in three months fitted out a fleet; and the conful Duilius, 260. who fought their firft naval battle, was victorious. The behaviour of Regulus, the Roman general, may give us an idea of the fpirit which then animated this people. Being taken prifoner in Africa, he was B. C. fent back on his parole to negotiate a change of prifoners. He 256. maintained in the fenate the propriety of that law which cut off from those who fuffered themfelves to be taken all hopes of being faved; and returned to certain death.

Of

Neither was Carthage, though corrupted, deficient in great men. all the enemics the Romans ever had to contend with, Hannibal, the Carthaginian, was the moft inilexible and dangerous. His father, Hamikar, had imbibed an extreme hatred against the Romans; and having fettled the inteftine troubles of his country, he took an early opportunity to infpire his fon, though but nine years old, with his own fentiments. For this purpofe he ordered a folemn facrifice to be offered to Jupiter, and, leading his fon to the altar, afked him whether he was willing to attend him in his expedition against the Romans. The courageous boy not only confented to go, but conjured his father, by the gods prefent, to form him to victory, and teach him the art of conquering. "That I will joy"fully do," replied Hamilcar," and with all the care of a father who loves

B. C.

218.

"you, if you will fwear upon the altar to be an eternal enemy to the Ro"mans." Hannibal readily complied; and the folemnity of the ceremony, and the facredness of the oath, made fuch an impreffion on his mind, as nothing afterwards could ever efface. Being appointed general at twenty-five years of age, he croffes the Ebro, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, and unexpectedly rushes down upon Italy. The lofs of four battles threatens the fall of Rome. Sicily fides with the conqueror. Hieronymus, king of Syracufe, declares against the Romans, and almost all Italy abandons them. In this extremity, Rome owed its prefervation to three great men. Fabius Maximus, defpifing popular clamour and the military ardour of his countrymen, declines coming to an engagement. The ftrength of Rome has time to recover. Marcellus raises the fiege of Nola, takes Syracufe, and revives the drooping fpirits of his troops. The Romans admired the character of these great men, but faw fomething more divine in the young Scipio. The fuccefs of this young hero confirmed the popular opinion, that he was of divine extraction, and held converse with the gods. At the age of four and twenty, he flies into Spain, where both his father and uncle had loft their lives, attacks New Carthage, and carries it at the first affault. Upon his arrival in Africa, kings fubmit to him, Carthage trembles in her turn, and fees her armies defeated. Hannibal, fixteen years victorious, is in vain called home to defend his country. Carthage is rendered tributary, gives hoftages, and engages never to enter on a war, but with the confent of the Roman people.

B. C.

210.

B. C.

201.

After the conqueft of Carthage, Rome had inconfiderable wars, but great victories; before, its wars were great, and its victories inconfiderable. At this time the world was divided, as it were, into two parts; in the one fought the Romans and Carthaginians; the other was agitated by thofe quarrels which had lafted fince the death of Alexander the Great; and of which the scene of action was Greece, Egypt, and the Eaft. The ftates of Greece had once more difengaged themselves from a foreign yoke. They were divided into three confederacies, the Ætolilians, Achæans, and Boeotians; each of these was ar affociation of free cities, which had affemblies and magiftrates in common. The Ætolians were the moft confiderable of them all. The kings of Macedon maintained that fuperiority which, in ancient times, when the balance of power was little attended to, a great prince natually poffeffed over his lefs powerful neighbours. Philip, the monarch who then reigned in Macedon, had rendered himfelf odious to the Greeks, y fome unpopular and tyrannical measures: the Etolians were most irritted; and, hearing the fame of the Roman arms, called them into Grece, and overcame Philip by their affiftance. The victory, however, chifly redounded to the advantage of the Romans. The Macedonian garfons were obliged to evacuate Greece; the cities were all declared free; ut Philip became a tributary to the Romans, and the ftates of Greece beame their dependants. The Etolians, difcovering their firft error, edeavoured to remedy it by another still more dangerous to themfelves, nd more advantageous to the Romans. As they had called the Rotans into Greece to defend them against king Philip, they now calle in Antiochus, king of Syria, to defend them against the Romans. he famous Hannibal too had recourfe to the fame prince, who was at tis time the moft powerful monarch in the Eaft, and the fucceffor to be dominions of Alexander in Afia. But Antiochus did not follow hi:advice fo much as that of the Etolians; for, inflead of renewing the wa in Italy, where

he landed in Greece with a small body of troops, and, being overcome without difficulty, fled over into Afia. In this war the Romans made ufe of Philip for conquering Antiochus, as they had before done of the Etolians for conquering Philip. They now pursued Antiochus, the laft object of their refentment, into Afia, and, having vanquifhed him by fea and land, compelled him to fubmit to a difgraceful treaty.

B. C. 190.

In thefe conquefts the Romans ftill allowed the ancient inhabitants to poflefs their territory; they did not even change the form of government; the conquered nations became the allies of the Roman people; which denomination, however, under a fpecious name, concealed a condition very fervile, and inferred that they fhould fubmit to whatever was required of them. When we relect on thofe eafy conquefts, we have reafon to be aftonifhed at the refifance which the Romans met with from Mithridates, king of Pontus, for the space of twenty-fix years. But this monarch had great refources. His kingdom, bordering on the inacceffible mountains of Caucafus, abounded in a race of men whofe minds were not enervated by pleafure, and whofe bodies were firm and vigorous; and he gave the Romans more trouble than even Hannibal.

The different ftates of Greece and Afia, who now began to feel the weight of their yoke, but had not the fpirit to shake it off, were transported at finding a prince who dared to fhow himself an enemy to the Romans, and cheerfully tabmitted to his protection. Mithridates, however, was at last compelled to yield to the fuperior fortune of the Romans. Vanquished fucceffively by Sylla and Lucullus, he was at length fubdued by Pompey, and ftripped of his dominions and his life, in the year before Chrift 63. In Africa, the Roman arms met with equal fuccefs. Marius, in conquering Jugurtha, made all fecure in that quarter. Even B. C. the barbarcus nations beyond the Alps began to feel the weight 106. of the Roman armis. Gallia Narbonenfis had been reduced into a province. The C.mbri, Teutones, and the other northern nations of Europe, broke int this part of the empire. The fame Marius, whose name was fo terrible in Africa, then made the north of Europe to tremble The barbarians retired to their wilds and deferts, lefs formiable than the Roman legions. But while Rome conquered the world, there fubfifted an inceffant war within her walls. This war had continud from the first period of the government. Rome, after the expulfio of her kings, enjoyed but a partial liberty. The defcendants of the fenators, who were diftinguished by the name of Patricians, were inveed with fo many odious privileges, that the people felt their dependence and became determined to fhake it off. A thoufand difputes on the subject arofe betwixt them and the Patricians, which always terminatedn favour of liberty.

B. C. 102.

Thefe difpute: while the Romans preferved their virtue, were not attended with an fanguinary confequences. The Patricians, who loved their country, heerfully parted with fome of their privileges to fatisfy the people; ar the people, on the other hand, though they obtained laws by which hey might be admitted to enjoy the first offices of the ftate, and thoug they had the power of nomination, always named Pa tricians. But hen the Romans, by the conqueft of foreign nations, became acquaintd with all their luxurics and refinements, when they became tainted with the effeminacy and corruption of the eaftern courts, and fported win every thing juft and honourable in order to obtain them, -the ftate, ton by the factions between its members, and without virtue on either fide to keep it together, became a prey to its own children,

Hence the bloody feditions of the Gracchi, which paved the way for an inextinguishable hatred between the nobles and commons, and made it eafy for any turbulent demagogue to put them in action against each other. The love of their country was now no more than a specious name: the better fort were too wealthy and effeminate to fubmit to the rigours of military difcipline; and the foldiers, compofed of the dregs of the republic, were no longer citizens. They had little refpect for any but their commander; under his banner they fought, and conquered, and plundered; and for him they were ready to die. He might command them to embrue their hands in the blood of their country. They who knew no country but the camp, and no authority but that of their general, were ever ready to obey him. The multiplicity of the Roman conquefts, however, which required their keeping on foot feveral armies at the fame time, retarded the fubversion of the republic. These armies were fo many checks upon each other. Had it not been for the foldiers of Sylla, Rome would have furrendered its liberty to the army of Marius.

48.

31.

Julius Cæfar at length appears. By fubduing the Gauls, he gained his country the moft ufeful conqueft it ever made. Pompey, his only B. C. rival, is overcome in the plains of Pharfalia. Cæfar is victorious almost at the fame time all over the world; in Egypt, in Afia, in Mauritania, in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain: conqueror on all fides, he is acknowledged master at Rome, and in the whole empire. Brutus and Caffius attempt to give Rome her liberty, by stabbing him in B. C. the fenate-house. But though they thereby deliver the Romans 48. from the tyranny of Julius, the republic does not obtain its freedom. It falls under the dominion of Mark Antony; young Cæfar Octavianus, nephew to Julius Cæfar, wrefts it from him by the feaB. C: fight at Actium; and there is no Brutus or Caffius to put an end to his life. Those friends of liberty had killed themselves in defpair; and Octavius, under the name of Auguftus, and title of emperor, remains the undisturbed master of the empire. During these civil commotions, the Romans still preferved the glory of their arms amongft diftant nations; and while it was unknown who should be master of Rome, the Romans were, without difpute, the masters of the world. Their military difcipline and valour abolished all the remains of the Carthaginian, the Perfian, the Greek, the Affyrian, and Macedonian glory; they were now only a name. No fooner, therefore, was Octavius eftablithed on the throne, than embaffadors from all quarters of the known world crowd to make their fubmiffions. Ethiopia fues for peace; the Parthians, who had been à most formidable enemy, court his friendship; India feeks his alliance; Pannonia acknowledges him; Germany B. C. dreads him; and the Wefer receives his laws. Victorious by fea and land, he shuts the temple of Janus. The whole earth lives in peace under his power; and Jefus Chrift comes into the world four years before the common æra.

7.

Having thus traced the progrefs of the Roman government while it remained a republic, our plan obliges us to fay a few words with regard to the arts, sciences, and manners, of that people. During the first ages of the republic, the Romans lived in a total neglect, or rather contempt, of all the elegant improvements of life. War, politics, and agriculture, were the only arts they ftudied, because they were the only arts they efteemed. But upon the downfall of Carthage, the Romans, having no enemy to dread from abroad, began to taste the fweets of fecurity, and to cultivate the arts. Their progrefs, however, was not gradual, as in the other countries we have defcribed. The conqueft of Greece at once