their chief town Valletta, or Malta, and its harbour, but the whole ifland, is fo well fortified as to be deemed impregnable. On the 18th of September there is an annual proceffion at Malta in memory of the Turks railing the fiege on that day, 1563, after four months affault, leaving their artillery, &c. behind.

In the beginning of June, 1798, the island of Malta was furrendered to the French under Buonaparte, who landed there a body of troops from the fleet then on its paffage for Egypt.

ARMS AND ORDERS.] The chief armorial bearings in Italy are as follow: The pope, as fovereign prince over the land of the church, bears for his efcutcheon, gules, confifting of a long headcape, Or, furmounted with a crofs, pearled and garnished with three royal crowns, together with the two keys of St. Peter, placed in faltier. The arms of Tuscany, Or, five roundles, gules, two, two, and one, and one in chief, azure, charged with three fleurs-de-lis, Or. Thofe of Venice, azure, a lion, winged, féjant, Or, holding under one of his paws a book covered, ar gent. Thofe of Genoa, argent, a crofs, gules, with a crown closed for the island of Corfica; and for fupporters two griffins, Or. The arms of Naples are, azure, femée of fleur-de-lis, Or, with a label of five points, gules.

The "order of St. Januarius" was inftituted by the late king of Spain, when king of Naples, in July 1738. The number of knights is limited to thirty, and after the prefent fovereign that office of the order is to be poffeffed by the kings of Naples. All the knights must prove the nobility of their defcent for four centuries, and are to be addreffed by the title of Excellency. St. Januarius, the celebrated patron of Naples, is the patron of this order. The "order of Annunciation" was inftituted in the year 1355, by Amadeus V. count of Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I. who bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, and won those arms which are now worn by the dukes of Savoy: "gules, a crofs argent." It is counted among the most refpectable orders in Europe: the knight must be of a noble family, but also a papift, In the year 1572, Emanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, inftituted the" order of St. Lazarus,' and revived and united to it the obfolete order of St. Maurice; which was confirmed by the pope, on the condition of maintaining two galleys against the Turks.

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In the year 828 it is pretended that the body of St. Mark was removed from Alexandria, in Egypt, to Venice. Accordingly, this faint, hath been taken for their tutelar faint and guardian, and his picture was formerly painted on their enfigns and banners. When the order of St. Mark" was firft instituted is uncertain, but it was an honour conferred by the doge or duke of Venice and the fenate on perfons of eminent quality, or who had done fome fignal fervice to the republic. The knights, when made, if prefent, were dubbed with a fword on their fhoulders, the duke faying "Efto miles fidelis" (be a faithful foldier).Abfent perfons were invefted by letters patent; but their title" Knights af St. Mark," is merely honorary: they have no revenues, nor are they under any obligation by vows as other orders. About the year 1460, Frederic III. emperor of Germany, inftituted the "order of St. George,' and dedicated it to St. George, tutelar faint and patron of Genoa. doge is perpetual grand-mafter. The badge, a plain crofs enamelled, gules, pendant to a gold chain, and worn about their necks. The cross is alfo embroidered on their cloaks. In the year 1561, Cafimir of Me. dicis, firft grand-duke of Tufcany, inftituted the "order of St. Stephen,"

The

vince. He and his fucceffors were to be the grand-masters. The knights are allowed to marry, and their two principal conventual houfes are at Pifa. It is a religious as well as military order, but the knights of ju tice and the ecclefiaftics are obliged to make proof of nobility of four defcents. They wear a red crofs with right angles, orled Or, on the left fide of their habit, and on their mantle.

The "order of the Holy Ghost" was founded with their chief feat, the hofpital of that name in Rome, by pope Innocent III. about the year 1198. They have a grand-mafter, and profefs obedience, chastity, and poverty. Their revenue is estimated at 24,000 ducats daily, with which they entertain ftrangers, relieve the poor, train up deferted children, &c. Their enfign is a white patriarchal crofs with twelve points, fewed on their breaft on the left fide of a black mantle. The "order of Jefa Chrift," inftituted by pope John XXII. was reformed and improved by pope Paul V. The reigning pope was to be always fovereign of it, and it was defigned as a mark of diftinction for the pope's Italian nobility; bat on account of its frequent proftitution it has fallen into difcredit. The "order of the Golden Spur" is faid to have been inftituted by pope Pius IV. 1559, and to have been connected with the "order of Pius," inftituted a year afterwards; but the badges were different. The knights of Pius are fuppreffed, and all that the knights of the golden fpur have preferved to themselves is the title of Counts of the facred palace of the Lateran. The badge is a ftar of eight points, white, and between the two bottom points a fpur, gold.

HISTORY.] Italy was probably firft peopled from Greece, as we have mentioned in the Introduction, to which we refer the reader for the ancient hiftory of this country, which, for many ages, gave law to the then known world, under the Romans.

The empire of Charlemagne, who died in 814, foon experienced the fame fate with that of Alexander. Under his fucceffors it was in a fhort time entirely difmembered. His fon Louis the Debonair fucceeded to his dominions in France and Germany, while Bernard, the grandfon of Charlemagne, reigned over Italy and the adjacent islands. But Bernard having loft his life by the cruelty of his uncle, against whom he had le. vied war, and Louis himself dying in 840, his dominions were divided among his fons Lothario, Louis, and Charles. Lothario, with the title of emperor, retained Italy, Provence, and the fertile countries fituated between the Saone and the Rhine; Louis had Germany; and France fell to the fhare of Charles, the youngest of the three brothers. Shortly after this Italy was ravaged by different contending tyrants; but in 96 Otho the Great re-united Italy to the imperial dominions. Italy after. wards fuffered much by the contefts between the popes and the emperors; it was haraffed by wars and internal divifions; and at length various principalities and ftates were erected under different heads.

Savoy and Piedmont, in time, fell to the lot of the counts of Maurienne. the ancestors of his prefent Sardinian majefty, whofe father became king of Sardinia, in virtue of the quadruple alliance concluded in 1718 •.

* Charles Emanuel-Ferdinand- Maria, king of Sardinia, and duke of Savoy, bom Alay 24, 1751; married, in 1775, to Maria- Adelheid, filter to Louis XVI. the las unfortunate king of the French.

Brothers and fifters of the king.

1. Maria-Josepha-Louifa, born September 2, 1753; married to the count de Provence. Vid. France.

2. Maria-Therefa, born Jan. 31, 1756; married to the count d'Artois, Vid. France, 3. Anna-Maria-Carolina, born Dic 17, 1757.

The great duchy of Tufcany belonged to the emperor of Germany, who governed it by deputies to the year 1240, when the famous diftinctions of the Guelphs, who were the partifans of the pope, and the Gibellines, who were in the emperor's intereft, took place. The popes then perfuaded the imperial governors in Tufcany to put themfelves under the protection of the church; but the Florentines in a fhort time formed themselves into a free commonwealth, and bravely defended their liberties against both parties by turns. Faction at laft fhook their freedom; and the family of Medici, long before they were declared either princes or dukes, in fact governed Florence, though the rights and privileges of the people feemed ftill to exift. The Medici, particularly Cofmo, who was defervedly called the Father of his Country, being in the fecret, fhared with the Venetians in the immenfe profits of the Eaft-India trade, before the discoveries made by the Portuguese. His revenue in ready money, which exceeded that of any fovereign prince in Europe, enabled his fucceffors to rife to fovereign power; and pope Pius V. gave one of his defcendants (Cofino, the great patron of the arts) the title of great duke of Tufcany in 1570, which continued in his family to the death of Gafton de Medicis in 1737, without iffue. The great-duchy was then claimed by the emperor Charles VI. as a fief of the empire, and given to his fon-in-law, the duke of Lorrain (afterwards emperor, and father of Jofeph II.) in lieu of the duchy of Lorrain, which was ceded to France by treaty. Leopold, his fecond fon (brother and fucceffor to the emperor Jofeph II.) upon the death of his father, became grand-duke. When he fucceeded to the imperial crown, his fon Ferdinand entered upon the fovereignty of the grand-duchy of Tufcany, who has now fucceeded his father in the empire of Germany. Leghorn, which belongs to him, carries on a great trade: and several ships of very confiderable force are now ftationed on the Tufcan coafts to prevent the depredations of the infidels.

No country has undergone greater viciffitudes of government than Naples or Sicily, chiefly owing to the inconftancy of the natives, which feems to be incorporated with their air. Chriftians and Saracens by turns conquered it. The Normans under Tancred drove out the Saracens, and, by their connections with the Greeks, established there, while the rest of Europe was plunged in monkish ignorance, a most respectable monarchy, flourishing in arts and arms. About the year 1166, the popes being then all-powerful in Europe, their intrigues broke into the fucceffion of Tancred's line, and Naples and Sicily at laft came into the poffeffion of the French; and the houfe of Anjou, with fome interruptions and tragical revolutions, held it till the Spaniards drove them out in 1504, and it was then annexed to the crown of Spain.

The government of the Spaniards under the Auftrian line was fo oppreffive, that it gave rife to the famous revolt, headed by Maffaniello, a young fisherman, without fhoes or ftockings, in the year 1647. His fuccefs was fo furprising, that he obliged the haughty Spaniards to abolifh the oppreffive taxes, and to confirm the liberties of the people. Before thefe could be re-established perfectly, he turned delirious, through his continual agitations of body and mind, and he was put to death at

4. Victor-Emanuel-Cajetan, duc d'Aofte, born July 24, 1759; married, April 25, 1789, Maria-Therefa, niece to the prefent emperor.

5. Maurice-Jofeph-Maria, duc de Montferrat, born September 12, 1762.

6. Maria. Charlotta, born January 17, 1764.

7. Charles-Jofeph, duc de Genevois, born April 6, 1765.

8. Jofeph-Benedict, comte de Maurienne, born October 5, 1765.

the head of his own mob. Naples and Sicily continued with the Spaniards till the year 1700, when the extinction of the Auftrian line opened a new fcene of litigation. In 1706, the archduke Charles, afterwards Emperor, took poffeffion of the kingdom. By virtue of various treaties, which had introduced Don Carlos, the king of Spain's foo, to the poffeffion of Parma and Placentia, a new war broke out in 1733, be tween the houfes of Auftria and Bourbon, about the poffeffion of Na ples; and Don Carlos was received into the capital, where he was pro claimed king of both Sicilies: this was followed by a very bloody cam paign, but the farther effufion of blood was ftopt by a peace between France and the emperor, to which the courts of Madrid and Naples at firft demurred, but afterwards acceded in 1736, and Don Carlos r. mained king of Naples. Upon his acceffion to the throne of Spain, in 1759,-it being found, by the infpection of phyficians, and other trials that his eldeft fon was by nature incapacitated for reigning, and his fe. cond being heir-apparent to the Spanish monarchy,-he refigned the crown of Naples to his third fon, Ferdinand IV. who married an archduchefs of Auftria*.

The Milanefe, the faireft portion of Italy, went through feveral hands; the Vicontis were fucceeded by the Galeazzos and the Sforzas; but fell at laft into the hands of the emperor Charles V. about the year 1525, who gave it to his fon, Philip II, king of Spain. It remained with that crown till the French were driven out of Italy, in 1703, by the Imperialifts. They were difpoffeffed of it in 1745; but by the emperor's cel fion of Naples and Sicily to the prefent king of Spain, it returned to the houfe of Auftria, who governed it by a viceroy, till the late conqueft of it by the French, and the establishment of the new Cifalpine republic, of which it forms the principal part.

The duchy of Mantua was formerly governed by the family of Gonzaga, who, adhering to France, the territory was forfeited, as a fief of the empire, to the houfe of Auftria. Guaitalla was feparated from it in 1748, and made part of the duchy of Parma.

The firft duke of Parma was natural fon to pope Paul III. the duchy having been annexed to the holy fee in 1545, by pope Julius II. The defcendants of the houfe of Farnefe terminated in the late queen-dowa. fter of Spain, whofe fon, his prefent catholic majefty, obtained the duchy, and his nephew now holds it, with the duchy of Placentia,

The Venetians were formerly the most formidable marine power in Europe. In 1194 they conquered Conftantinople itself, and held it for fome time, together with a great part of the continent of Europe and Afia. They were more than once brought to the brink of deftruction by the confederacies formed against them among the other powers of Europe, effe. cially by the league of Cambray in 1509, but were as often faved by the difunion of the confederates. The difcovery of a paffage to India, by the Cape of Good Hope, gave the first blow to their greatnefs, as it loft them the Indian trade. By degrees the Turks took from them their most valuable poffeffions on the continent; and fo late as the year 1715

*Ferdinand IV. king of the Two Sicilies, third fon of his late Catholic majesty the king of Spain, born Jan. 12, 1751, afcended the throne October 5, 1759; and married, April 7, 1768, to the archduchefs Maria- Carolina-Louifa, fifter to the late emperor, by whom are, whom he has had iffue 15 children, 10 of whom are living: among 1. Maria-Therefa, prefent empress of Germany, born June 6, 1771. 2. Therefa-Clementina, born November 23, 1775; married, September 17, 1790, the archduke Ferdinand.

3. Francis-Januarius, prince royal, born August 17, 1777; married Maria-Cleqzztina, the archduchefs, September, 1790.

they loft the Morea. In 1797 the French feized upon the city of Venice, abolished its government, and foon after ceded it by treaty to the emperor, with a confiderable part of its continental territory.

The Genoefe for fome time difputed the empire ef the Mediterranean fea with the Venetians, but were feldom or never able to maintain their own independency by land, being generally protected, and fometimes fabjected, by the French and Imperialifts. Their doge, or firft magiftrate, used to be crowned king of Corfica, though it does not clearly ap pear by what title. The fuccefsful effort they made in driving the victorious Auftrians out of their capital, during the war, which was terminated by the peace of Aix-la Chapelle, in 1748, has few parallels in hiftory, and ferves to fhow the effect of defpair under oppreffion. Ge noa has lately been revolutionised by France, and a new form of republican government established there.

The hiftory of the papacy is connected with that of Christendom it. felf. The most folid foundations for its temporal power were laid by the famous Matilda, countefs of Tufcany, and heirefs to the greatest part of Italy, who bequeathed a large portion of her dominions to the famous pope Gregory VII. (who, before his acceffion in 1073, was fo well known by the name of Hildebrand). It would be too tedious here to enter into a detail of the ignorance of the laity, and the other caufes that operated to the aggrandifement of the papacy, previous to the Reformation. Ever fince that æra, the ftate of Europe has been fuch, that the popes have had more than once great weight in its public affairs, chiefly through the weakness and bigotry of temporal princes.

The papal power is evidently now nearly extinct. Even before the prefent times, when innovation and revolution have made fuch rapid rides, the pope was treated by Roman-catholic princes with very little more ceremony than is due to him as bishop of Rome, and poffeffed of a temporal principality. In the prefent war, though he acted with confiderable caution and moderation, he co-operated with the allied powers against France: in confequence of which, the French made an ncurfion into his territories, where they met with little refiftance, and compelled him to fign a peace on fuch terms as they thought proper to dictate. He paid a confiderable contribution in money; and confented hat fuch of the most valuable ftatues and pictures in Rome, as commiffioners appointed for that purpofe fhould felect, fhould be carried away, and conveyed to Paris. But about the latter end of December, 1797, a riot happening at Rome, in which the French general Duphot was killed, the French army, under general Berthier, marched against hat city, entered it without refiftance, and, on the 15th of February,' 798, the tree of liberty was planted, the papal government abolished, and the Roman people declared by the French commander to have entered on the rights of fovereignty, and to conftitute what was termed he Roman republic. On the 20th of March the new conftitution was bublifhed, and the government declared to be vefted in five confuls, com oling a directory under the direction of the French general, as comnander in chief, 32 fenators, correfponding to the council of ancients France, and 72 tribunes, called the reprefentatives of the people. The pope remained in Rome when the French entered it, and fufferd himself to be made a prifoner by them. They confined him to his wn rooms, and put the feal of confifcation on every thing he had; but a few days they refolved that he should be fent from Rome, and on the morning of the 20th of February he left that city, accompanied by