Roman army advanced from Campania. A decisive victory of the Romans and the capture of Bovianum (305), the capital of the Samnite league, ended the war. The Samnites begged for peace, and

with their Sabellian allies obtained a renewal of the old treaties and equality with Rome.

Foundation of numerous Roman colonies and several military roads ; the Hernican league was dissolved; the Volscians and Equians were obliged to receive Roman citizenship without suffrage. Construction of two great military roads from Rome: the northern (later called Via Flaminia) extended to Narnia (Nequinum); the southern (later Via Valeria) extended by way of Carsioli to Alba Fucentia (i. e. on lake Fucinus), the key to the territory of the Marsi.

298-290. Third war against the Samnites and the other

Italians.

Cause: The Samnites succeeded in bringing men of their party into power throughout Lucania, and concluded a league with the Lucanians in order to risk a final struggle for the independence of Italy. New rising among the Etruscans.

The consul L. Cornelius Scipio (whose sarcophagus, with an old Latin inscription,1 discovered in 1780, is still to be seen in the Vatican Museum) forced the Lucanians to abjure their alliance with Samnium. 297, victory of Rullianus at Tifernum; victory of P. Decius Mus at Maluentum. In 296 the desperate exertions of the Samnites enabled them to place three armies in the field: one to defend their own country, one for Campania, while the third was conducted by its commander Gellius Egnatius through the Marsian and Umbrian lands to Etruria. This prevented the Etruscans from concluding the peace which they had nogotiated with Rome and conjured up the old coalition of the Italians, which was now joined by Gallic tribes. Great prepparations in Rome. The consuls Q. Fabius Rullianus and P. Decius Mus advanced to Umbria with 60,000 men, where in 295 the decisive battle of Sentinum was fought, and by the devotion of P. Decius Mus (Livius, X. 28) after a long contest ended in favor of the Romans. Dissolution of the army of the coalition, the Gauls scattered, the Samnites returned to Samnium, the Umbrians submitted, the Etruscans asked for peace in the next year (294). The war lasted in Samnium four years longer with varying fortune. In 293 the Samnites suffered a severe defeat at Aquilonia from L. Papirius Cursor and Spurius Carvilius. In 292 the Samnites gained their last victory under the command of Gavius Pontius the younger.

Finally the Samnites concluded peace with the consul M. Curius Dentatus, as it seems, without ceding territory; but the Romans

1 This inscription, which it is conjectured from linguistic reasons, was engraved some time after the death of Scipio, was:

Cornelius Lucius Scipió Barbátus

Gnairód patré prognátus fórtis vir sapiensque quoiús forma virtutei parisuma (parissima) fuit consol censór aidilis quei fuit apud vos Taurásiá Cisaúna Samnió cepit

subigit omné Loucánam ópsidésque abdoúcit.

thereby gained a chance to strengthen their power in the rest of Italy.

This was accomplished by the foundation of new colonies which should serve as checks on the Italians, especially Minturne and Sinuessa in the territory of the Auruncians, Hatria in Picenum, Venusia in Apulia. The Sabines were obliged to become subject to Rome, after a short and feeble resistance. At this time, after the Samnite wars, the

286 (?). Hortensian law (lex Hortensia) was passed. Thereby it was settled that all decrees of the comitia tributa should be binding on all citizens. This was accomplished by the dictator Hortensius after a dangerous uprising of the plebeians, who had been unable to come to terms with the opposite party in regard to a reduction of debts, and had withdrawn to the Janiculus (last secessio plebis). About this time questions of peace and alliance began to be submitted to the comitia tri

buta.

By the lex Mania the second Publilian law (that the curiæ, or the narrow patrician senate, should assent beforehand to the resolves, see p. 102) was extended to the elections which took place in the comitia centuriata. Nevertheless, the real importance of the public assemblies was declining; they became more and more instruments in the hands of the presiding officers. After a short truce in Italy, in consequence of the peace with the Samnites, there broke out a 285-282. war between Rome and a new Italian coalition.

Cause: The inhabitants of Thurii being attacked by the Lucanians and Bruttians, sought help from the Romans. Alliance of the Lucanians and Bruttians with the Etruscans, Umbrians, and Gauls of northern Italy. The annihilation of a Roman army at Arretium by Senonian mercenaries of the Etruscans was terribly avenged by the Romans. The Gallic tribe of the Senones was in part slaughtered, in part driven from its home in Umbria. A victory of the Romans over the north Italians and their Gallic allies by Lake Vadimonium (283), and another at Populonia (282), inclined the Gauls to peace. After a victory of the consul C. Fabricius over the Lucanians at Thurii the non-Dorian Greek cities joined the Romans. Locri, Croton, and Thurii received Roman garrisons. This advance of the Romans led to the 282-272. War with Tarentum.

Special cause: Old treaties with Tarentum prohibited Roman ships of war from passing the promontory of Lacinium. A Roman war fleet on its way to the Umbrian coast anchored in the harbor of Tarentum. The people, incited by demagogues in the assembly, attacked the vessels, and captured five, whose crews were either put to death or sold into slavery. A Roman embassy which demanded reparation in Tarentum was insulted.

A Roman army advanced into the Tarentine territory. The Tarentines called to their assistance Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, a renowned general and leader of mercenaries, who had long meditated the plan of conquering for himself and the Hellenic nation a new empire in the

west. Pyrrhus at first sent Milon with 3000 Epirotes to Tarentum (281); he himself landed in Italy, the following year, with an army of 25,000 men (Epirotes, Macedonians, Greeks, etc.) and twenty elephants. The war between Pyrrhus and the Romans was a contest of an army of mercenaries against militia, of a military monarchy against the government of a senate. Strict discipline maintained by the king in Tarentum ; the theatres were closed, the death penalty imposed on evasion of military service. Great preparations at Rome; even the proletarii, generally free from military service, were enrolled. One Roman army was sent to Etruria, the main army to lower Italy. In

the

280. Battle of Heraclea, near the Siris,

the Romans were defeated, after a struggle whose result was long doubtful, by the phalanx and the elephants. Great losses of Pyrrhus. The Bruttians, Lucanians, and Samnites joined the king. The offer of peace made by Pyrrhus to the Romans through Cineas was haughtily rejected by the senate. Speech of the blind consular Appius Claudius. Pyrrhus advanced as far as Anagnia in Campania, but there halted and returned to lower Italy, as two Roman armies took the field against him, and the allies of the Romans remained faithful. Roman embassy (C. Fabricius) sent to Pyrrhus to treat for an exchange of prisoners. In the following year the two armies, each numbering with the allied troops 70,000 men, met in the bloody 279. Battle of A(u)sculum,

in Apulia, which lasted two days, and in which Pyrrhus was victor, but again suffered enormous loss.

The Syracusans, who, since the death of Agathocles (289, p. 20), had been hard pressed by the Carthaginians, called for aid upon Pyrrhus, who gladly gave heed to the request, but left a garrison in Tarentum. Offensive and defensive alliance of Rome and Carthage (279); a Carthaginian fleet appeared off the coast of Italy, but soon returned to Sicily. The Roman's conduct of the war in Italy was at first feeble, owing to their great losses, but they soon captured all the cities on the south coast excepting Tarentum and Rhegium. After two years' absence (p. 20), Pyrrhus again landed in Italy. He started to assist the Samnites, who were hard pressed by the Romans, but was completely defeated in the

275.

Battle of Beneventum.

1300 prisoners and 4 elephants fell into the hands of the victors. Despairing of success against Rome, Pyrrhus returned to Epirus, leaving a garrison in Tarentum. Not until after the death of Pyrrhus, which took place in 272 at Argos, did Milon surrender the city and fortress of Tarentum to the Romans, on condition of free departure. The Tarentines were obliged to deliver up their arms and ships, and destroy their walls, but retained their own municipal administration.

After the fall of Tarentum, subjugation of the Lucanians, Samnites, and Bruttians. All were compelled to cede portions of their territories and to receive colonies (see below). In 270 capture of Rhe

gium, which had been for ten years in the hands of Campanian mutineers, who were now punished with death. In 268 the Picentini were defeated and a large number of them transferred to Campania. The subjugation of Italy to the Rubicon and Macra was completed by the defeat of the Sallentini in Calabria, 266. As regards the relation of the conquered towns to Rome we must distinguish:

I. Municipal cities (municipia), i. e. communities having Roman citizenship without suffrage and with no claim to a public office at Rome (sine suffragio et jure honorum). They had the burdens but not the privileges of Roman citizens. Some places were permitted to keep the administration of their municipal affairs under officials of their own choosing; in others the municipal constitution was entirely abolished.

II. Colonies (coloniæ), i. e. Roman strongholds and fortresses. Many conquered towns had to cede a part of their land, which was then divided among poor Roman citizens, who retained all their rights of citizenship, and thenceforward formed the ruling class in the colonies, like the patricians, while the old population was reduced to inhabitants having no political rights. The Latin colonies are to be distinguished from the Roman colonies; the former owed their establishment to the Latin League, but had been further developed after its dissolution, in that the senate distributed lands among Latin or Roman citizens, who renounced their jus suffragii et honorum. municipalities, as in the colonies, the jurisdiction was in the hands of a prefect (præfectus iuri dicundo) appointed by the prætor urbanus (p. 101).

In the

III. Allies (socii, civitates fœderata), whose relation to Rome was regulated by treaty, who had for the most part their own administration and jurisdiction, and were freed from service in the legion, but were obliged to furnish auxiliary troops or ships.

THIRD PERIOD.

Punic Wars. From the Beginning of Rome's universal Empire, to the Destruction of Carthage and Corinth.

(264-146).

264-241. First Punic War. Contest over Sicily.

For the earlier history of the Punic people (Carthaginians) see p. 16, etc.

Cause of the war: The ill-feeling which had long existed between Rome, the first land power, and Carthage, the first sea power, of the west, and which had only been waived for a moment during the attack of Pyrrhus, who represented the Hellenic states which were hostile to both powers (pp. 76 and 108). Since 311 the Romans had endeavored to form a fleet of war. About this time establishment at Rome of two commanders of the fleet (duumviri navales), later (267) of 4 quæstors of the fleet (quaestores classici).

Special cause: The Mamertines, i. e. men of Mars, formerly Campanian mercenaries in the pay of Agathocles (p. 20), had seized the city of Messana and put the male population to death. They were

besieged by king Hiero II. of Syracuse. Part of their number sought aid from the Carthaginians, another part from the Romans. The Roman senate hesitated; the assemblies resolved to grant the assistance asked (265). A Roman fleet, consisting principally of the ships of the south Italian allies, and the advance guard of the army, arrived in Rhegium. Meanwhile the Mamertines had admitted Carthaginian ships to the harbor and received a Carthaginian garrison in the citadel. The Roman advance guard crossed the strait, occupied Messana, and drove the garrison from the citadel. The Carthaginians declared war.

264. A Carthaginian fleet besieged the Romans in Messana. The consul Appius Claudius Caudex crossed the strait with the main body of the army and relieved Messana. Unsuccessful attempt to take Syracuse. The consul returned to Italy, leaving a garrison in Messana.

263. Two Roman armies crossed to Sicily. Victory of the consul M. Valerius Maximus, called Messalla, over the Carthaginians and Syracusans. Hiero, king of Syracuse, deserted the Carthaginians and joined the Romans, who advanced to the south coast of Sicily.

262. Agrigentum captured by the Romans, after defeat of a Carthaginian army under Hanno, advancing to its relief. The Romans resolved to construct a large fleet. They built the first five-decker1 (pentēre) after the model of a stranded Carthaginian ship.

260. First naval expedition of the Romans against Lipăra, with 17 ships, had an unfortunate end, the whole squadron with the consul Cn. Cornelius Scipio being captured by the Carthaginians. Immediately afterwards, however,

260. First naval victory of the Romans under C. Duilius at Myle, west of Messana. Boarding bridges. Special honors paid to Duilius. Columna rostrata in the Forum. The war was continued in the following years with changing fortune; the Carthaginians under Hamilcar maintained themselves in the western portion of the island.

257. Drawn battle at sea, off the promontory of Tyndaris.

The Roman senate decided to attempt a landing in Africa. A fleet of 330 ships under the consuls M. Atilius Regulus and L. Manlius Volso sailed for the southern coast of Sicily, where, at the mouth of the Himera, the troops were taken on board. A Carthaginian fleet of 350 vessels attempted to stop the expedition, but in the great 256. Naval battle of Ecnomus (south coast of Sicily)

it was completely defeated. What was left of the Carthaginian fleet took up position before Carthage to protect the city. The Roman consuls landed to the east of the city at Clupea and laid waste the Carthaginian territory. Manlius returned to Italy with half the army; Regulus remained with 15,000 men. The Carthaginians being defeated sued for peace. Regulus demanded the cession of Sicily and Sardinia, surrender of prisoners and all vessels of war except one, 1 Not the first ship of war; the Romans had long had vessels of war and three-deckers, see pp. 105, 107, 109.