379-395. Theodosius

co-regent, and entrusted him with the administration of the East. Theodosius became a Christian after his recovery from a severe illness, fought successfully against the West Goths, but was obliged to accept them as allies (fœderati) in their abodes in Masia and Thrace. Gratianus fell in battle against the imperator proclaimed by the legions in Britain,

383-388. Clemens Maximus,

whom Theodosius recognized as co-regent under the condition that he should leave Italy in the hands of the young Valentinian II. In 387 Maximus drove Valentinian from Italy. He fled to Theodosius, who, returning with him, captured Clemens Maximus at Aquileia, and executed him.

390. Insurrection in Thessalonica, cruelly punished by Theodosius (7000 executions). On this account bishop Ambrosius of Milan, eight months later, excluded the emperor from Christian communion, until he had done penance.

392.

394.

After the murder of Valentinian II. by Arbogastes, and after the new imperator, Eugenius, whom Arbogastes set up, had fallen at Aquileia in battle with Theodosius, and Arbogastes had put himself to death, the whole empire was, for the last time, reunited under

After his death the division of administration into an eastern and a western section, which had existed for a hundred years, became a permanent division of the empire. 395-1453. Arcadius received the Eastern empire, also

called the Byzantine or Grecian empire. Imperial vicar, Rufinus. Capital Byzantium or Constantinople. The

395-476. Western empire, capital Rome, Ravenna imperial residence after 402, under

395-423. Honorius.

Guardian and chancellor, the Vandal Stilicho, murdered in 408 by command of Honorius to whom he had been defamed. After the death of Honorius the usurper

424. Joannes reigned for a short time, but was finally overthrown with the assistance of the Eastern empire and the sixyear-old

425-455. Valentinian III.

made imperator, the government being conducted at first by his mother Placida, sister of Honorius, in his name. Valentinian was murdered by

455. Petronius Maximus,

who married Eudoxia, widow of Valentinian, but was killed shortly before the capture of Rome by the Vandals (p. 173).

The throne was usurped by

455-556. Avitus

who was soon deposed by Recimir, a military leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army. Recimir placed upon the throne

457-461. Majorianus,

whom he afterwards deposed in favor of

461-465. Libius Severus,

after whose deposition (?)

465-467. Recimir conducted the government without the pretence of an imperial figure-head until 467 when he placed

467-472.

Anthemius

upon the throne, who was succeeded by

472. Olybrius.

Recimir and his sovereign dying this year, the Eastern court interposed and placed

473. Glycerius

on the throne of the West, who was succeeded by 473-475. Julius Nepos,

also by appointment of the emperor of the East. In 475 Orestes, a leader among the mercenaries, placed his son

475-476. Romulus Augustulus

upon the throne, who, combining in his name that of Rome's first king and first emperor, became the last of the imperial line in the West, being deposed by

476. Odovaker (Odoacer),

military leader of the Heruli and Rugii, who made himself ruler (not king) of Italy, and was recognized by the Eastern emperor Zeno as patricius of Rome and prefect of Italy (p. 173).

§ 4. TEUTONS. Aryan.

Geography: The Teutonic race has occupied three regions in Europe.

I. Germany comprises Central Europe, the slope from the Alps N. to the sea. It may be roughly bounded as follows: N. German Ocean, Baltic; E. a vague line indicated by the Vistula, and the Carpathian Mts.; S. the Alps; W. the Rhine. This region falls into three physical divisions: 1. The broad and lofty chain of the Alps divided into the Swiss Alps on the W. and the Tyrolese Alps on the E., whose deep valleys fostered the rise of small independent communities (p. 245). Mont Blanc (14,748 ft.), Monte Rosa, Jungfrau, etc., Lake Geneva, Lake Constance, Lake of Lucerne (Vierwaldstättesee), etc. A broad upland extending two thirds of the way from the Alps to the sea, and embracing the present Würtemberg, Bavaria, Bohemia, Sax

2.

ony, Saxon duchies, Hesse, etc. 3. A low plain reaching to the sea, and including the present Holland, Hanover, Prussia, etc. Modern Germany comprises 2 and 3. The peninsula of Denmark has belonged, in historic times, politically to Scandinavia and Germany.

Through the middle of Germany a range of low mountains extends from S.E. to N.W. from the Jura in France to the Carpathians in Hungary. This range, known to the Romans as Hercynia silva, includes the Jura, Vosges, Schwarzwald (Black Forest) Taunus, Thüringer Wald, Erz Gebirge, Riesen Gebirge, Sudetes, and forms an arc whose convex side is turned toward the W. and N. The valley of the Danube S. of this range, and the depression on its northern base extending from the Lahn to the middle Elbe (the old commercial route between Frankfort o. M. and Leipsic), are the two natural roads which give the East access to western Europe. Other mountain groups: Bohemian Forest, forming the S.E. border of Bohemia, Harz, N. of the Frankfort road. Rivers: S. the Danube, flowing into the Black Sea; N. the Rhine, with its branches Neckar, Main, etc., Ems, Weser, Elbe, flowing into the German Ocean; Oder, Vistula flowing into the Baltic.

The Roman provinces Ratia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pannonia, occupied the Alps and the southern bank of the Danube. Germania superior and inferior were Gallic provinces on the left bank of the Upper and Lower Rhine. To Germany proper, which was never a province of the empire, the Romans applied the name, Germania

magna.

II. Scandinavia, the great peninsula jutting E. and S. from the north of Europe. It falls into two divisions: 1. A rugged, mountainous region on the W., with deeply indented coasts (Norway). 2. On the E. a less mountainous region with numerous rivers flowing into the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia_(Sweden). The southern part of Scandinavia was known to the Romans under the name Scandia, and was thought to be an island.

III. The British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176.

Ethnology: I. According to the theory of the Asiatic origin of the Aryans, the Teutonic migration followed the Celtic and preceded that of the Slavs. The Teutons, or Germans, appear to have taken the northern route and to have first settled along the coast, on the plain, and in the northern portion of the plateau. The valley of the Danube and Bohemia were early occupied by Celtic tribes, and it was only gradually that these were dispossessed by the invading GerWhether the Teutons entered Germany in two bands, is not clear; certain it is that from a very early time a radical difference has existed in language and customs among the Germans, whereby they are divided into High Germans, inhabiting the inland plateau, and Low Germans, dwelling on the coast.

mans.

The Romans divided the Germans (Germani)1 either into two sections, the Suevi and the non-Suevi (Cæsar), or into three branches which were named after the sons of "Mannus, the son of the earth-born god Tuisco," Istavones, Inguævones, Herminones. The former division

1 The origin of this name is doubtful. See the disputed passage in Tacitus, Germania, 2.

is thought to correspond to that of High (Suevi) and Low Germans ; the latter answers territorially to the fusions of tribes which later formed the Franks, Saxons, and Thuringians. Of the separate tribes may be mentioned: I. Non-Suevi: Istævones, Ubii, Usipii, Tencterii, Sugambri, Marsi, on the right bank of the Rhine where we find later the Alamanni and Ripuarian Franks; Inguævones, Batavians, Frisians, Saxons, Chauci, Cimbri, along the coast from the Rhine to the right bank of the Elbe. II. Suevi, Chatti, in Hessen, Cherusci on the Upper Weser, Hermunduri in Thuringia, extending as far as the Danube (these three were included under the Herminones), Marcomanni in Bohemia (see below), Quadi on the Danube, Semnones, the centre of what seems to have been a very loose political organization of the Suevi, between the Elbe and Oder, Langobardi, Rugii in the northeast toward the Vistula, Burgundiones on the Oder, Guttones (later Goths) extending beyond the Vistula, Vandali, Alani (?).

In Denmark dwelt the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, until the fifth century A. D., when a large part of these tribes migrated to England, and their place was taken by Danes from the islands on the E.

II. Scandinavia was occupied by Finnish tribes (Sitones), from the N., and by invading Germans from the S. at an unknown time : Gauta (Goths), Sueones (Swedes) in Sweden; Northmen in Norway. III. British Isles. See pp. 36 and 176.

Religion: The religion of the Teutonic race was a pantheistic nature worship. I. Germans: Beyond the unsatisfactory passages in Cæsar (Bell. Gall. VI. 21) and Tacitus (Germania 9, 10, etc.), all our knowledge of the ancient religion of the Germans before the introduction of Roman civilization and of Christianity is derived by inference from later sources, or from the younger but much fuller mythology of Scandinavia. Among the great gods (Ases) of the Germans were: Woden (Odin in the north), the "all-father"; Donar (Thor), his son, at once the storm-god, and the god of agriculture; Zio or Thiu (Tyr) also a son of Woden, god of war; Fro (Freyr), god of love; Paltar (Baldur), god of justice; Nerthus or Hertha (Frau Bertha), the earth; Frauwa (Freya), sister of Fro; Friga (Fria), wife of Woden; Helia (Hel) goddess of the lower regions. Below the Ases were the Giants, the Normes or fates, the Walkyres or messengers of the gods. In the realm of lower mythology the German imagination was remarkably fertile. Fairies, cobolds, elves, nixes, abounded, and still live in childrens' tales, and the many popular fancies which the modern study of folk lore has revealed. The Germans had no corporation of priests like that of the Druids, though the priests and priestesses of certain divinities stood in high honor. Their worship consisted in the repetition of formal invocations, and in the offering of sacrifices, prisoners being often immolated to the gods. Woods and trees were held in special reverence and often devoted to the performance of worship beneath their branches. Certain days were set apart for the worship of certain deities, whose names have come down to us in the names of the days of the week. Tuesday (Thiu'sdag), Wednesday (Woden'sdag), Thursday (Thor'sdag, Donnerstag), Friday (Freya'sdag). Some of the customs of

these recurring festivities were afterwards impressed into the service of Christianity. Such was the decoration of trees with flowerwreaths and candles, now a part of Christmas rites,1 and such the colored eggs in a "hare's nest," now an Easter custom, but originally an offering to some heathen divinity. Divinations by flight of birds, neighing of horses, throwing sticks, etc.

II. Scandinavia: The faith of the northern Teutons was one of the most remarkable of the heathen religions, and one of the last in Europe to yield to Christianity. After being long transmitted by hearsay the northern mythology was first committed to writing in the poem of the Elder Edda in the twelfth, or as some scholars hold, in the thirteenth century. The poem is supplemented by the commentary known as the Younger Edda, written by Snorri Sturluson (1178-1241).

In the beginning existed the All-Father. In chaos (Ginungagap) he created two worlds, Niflheim, the ice-world, in the north, and Muspelheim, the fire-world, where sat Surt with the flaming sword, in the south. Midway of the two their opposing influences produced the giant Ymer, who became the progenitor of the evil race of frostgiants (Hrymthurses). Ymer was fed by the milk of the cow Audhumbra, who licked the ice-blocks and set free the god Bure, to whom a giant's daughter bore three sons, Odin, Vile, and Ve. These three slew Ymer, in the deluge of whose blood perished all the frost-giants, save two, who became the ancestors of a new race of frost-giants. Of the body of Ymer the gods formed the universe, the earth, the sky and the stars. Dwarfs were the earliest inhabitants of the earth. Afterwards the first man and woman were created from two trees.

The universe thus formed comprised nine worlds. Of these the highest was Muspelheim, in whose highest part was Gimle, the abode of the blest. Below Muspelheim was Asaheim, or Godheim, where dwelt the great gods (Asa) in their capital, Asgard, with its lofty halls, the fairest of which was Valhal, the hall of Odin. Below Godheim was Mannaheim, or Midgard, the earth, a disk of land surrounded by the ocean and held together by the Midgard-serpent which lay at the bottom of the ocean, its tail between its jaws. Across the ocean was Jotunheim, the world of the giants, whose one purpose was the annoyance of mankind, on which account they were perpetually at war with man's defenders, the gods of Godheim. Below the earth was Helheim, the world of the dead, and, lowest of all, Niflheim, with the fountain Hvergelmer. Bifroust, the bridge between Godheim and Mannaheim. Gjallar-bridge between Helheim, Jotunheim and the worlds above.

These worlds were, in the fancy of the north, surrounded and united by a mighty ash-tree, Yggdrasil, with three roots reaching to Godheim, Jotunheim, and Niflheim.

The great gods were Odin and his sons: Thor, Vali, Haimdall, Vidar, Baldur, Braga, Tyr, Hödur, besides Aller, Forsete, and Njörd,

1 In Germany the tree is simply decorated, the presents to be exchanged are piled around the support of the tree or placed on an adjacent table. The exchange of gifts was not a part of the old German custom, but is perhaps a survival of a practice observed by the Romans during the Saturnalia (p. 85).