All England south of the Forth, with the possible exception of Strathclyde, united under Ecgberht.

834. The Northmen ravaged Sheppey. Ecgberht defeated by the Danes (825).

836. Battle of Hengestesdun. Victory of Ecgberht over Welsh and Danes. Death of Ecgberht (837).

§ 3. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE MEROWINGIANS.

511. After the death of Chlodwig the first division of the kingdom of the Franks. According to this division, which was not strictly territorial, the four sons of Chlodwig, Theoderic I. (Thierry, 511-533). Chlodomer (Chlodomir, 511-524), Childebert I. (511-558), Chlotar I. (Clotaire, 511–561) ruled the kingdom from the four court-camps of Metz, Orléans, Paris and Soissons.

530-532. The kingdom of the Thuringians conquered by the eldest of the brothers (Theoderic). The two younger brothers subjugated the Burgundians.

The northern part of Thuringia, as far south as the Unstrut, fell to the Saxons, the allies of the Franks in the war. The southern part (to the Danube) became Frankish territory, but the name of Franconia was given to the region south of the Thuringian forest; the district between the Unstrut, the Thuringian forest, and the Saale continued to be called Thuringia.

Acquisition of Provence (536) and the supremacy over Swabia and Bavaria on the fall of the kingdom of the East Goths.

558-561. The whole Frankish kingdom again united under Chlotar I., who outlived his three brothers. After his death 561 A second division of the kingdom among the grandsons of Chlodwig, Guntram (561-593), Charibert I. (561-567), Sigibert I. (561-575), and Chilperic I. (561-584), into four, later (567) into three parts: Austrasia, with the capital at Rheims, and a population chiefly German; Neustria, with the capital at Soissons; Burgundy, with Orléans as capital; in both of which later divisions the mass of the population was RomanoCeltic or Romance.1

Family divisions and wars full of horrors. Feud of Brunhilde (Brunichildis) of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, king of the Visigoths, and Fredegunde (Fredegundis) of Neustria († 597), slave, and afterwards wife, of Chilperic I.

613. Second union of the entire kingdom of the Franks under Chlotar II. of Neustria, great-grandson of Chlodwig. Brunhilde captured, tortured, and dragged to death by a wild horse.

Origin of the power of the majores domus (Hausmeier, mayors of

1 Charibert received the territory around Paris, but after his early death this was equally divided among his brothers, and the triple division alone was henceforth of importance. [TRANS.]

the palace), who were at first superintendents of the royal household, afterwards leaders of the feudal retainers (leudes). The race of the Pipins (afterwards called Carolingians), of pure German blood,1 acquired an hereditary claim to the office of major domus, in Austrasia first, and afterwards in Neustria.

622-678. Third division of the kingdom of the Franks (interrupted, however, by several temporary unions) into the two parts into which it had meanwhile separated:

1. Austrasia (principally German), separated by the Schelde from 2. Neustria (Romance, northern France to the Loire, not reckoning Bretagne which was independent) and Burgundy. The duchies of Aquitania and Vasconia (Guyenne and Gascogne), between the Loire and the Pyrenees, were almost independent.

§ 4. MOHAMMED (MAHOMET) AND THE CALIPHATE. 622. Mohammed's flight (Hegira) from Mecca to Medina. 16 July. Mohammed (i. e. he who is greatly praised), born at Mecca, 571, of the family of Hashem, a merchant, husband of the wealthy Chadija, acquainted from his journeys with the Jewish and the Christian religions, proclaimed himself a prophet among the tribe of the Koreishites. Islam (i. e. a submission to the will of God consequent on belief). One God (Allah) and Mohammed his prophet. Moslems (the believers). Victories of Mohammed in Arabia (629); preparation for conquests in Syria. Mohammed died 632. Caliphs (i. e. successors):

632-634. Abu-bekr, father-in-law of the prophet. Collection of the Koran (Quran), later enlarged by the transcription of an oral tradition, the Soona. Separation of the believers into Soonees, who recognized this addition, and Sheeah, who rejected it, and regarded Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, as his only rightful successor. Wars with the Eastern Empire and the Persians. 634-644. Omar, founder of the Arabian supremacy in the East. He assumed the title of Emir-al-Mumenin ("Prince of the faithful"), which was afterwards borne by all the caliphs. Conquest of Syria (Damascus 635), Palestine, Phoenicia. Destruction of the empire of the Sassanida (the New Persians) by the battle of Nehavend (641). Conquest of Egypt by Omar's general Amroo. Capture of Alexandria.

644-656. Othmann (Osman). Conquest of northern Africa. Capture of Rhodes. Murder of Othman during an insurrection. 656-661. Ali, husband of Fatima, Mohammed's daughter, not universally recognized. Muawwiyah proclaims himself caliph in Syria. After bloody civil wars and after the murder of Ali, the Sooneite

661-750.

Ommiads obtained the caliphate.

He trans

661-680. Muawwiyah I., great-grandson of Omeyyah. ferred the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus.

1 Bonnell, Die Anfänge des Karolingischen Hauses, 1866.

The caliphate was made hereditary. About 700 the governor Musa completed the conquest of Byzantine Africa as far as the Atlantic Ocean. The Berbers, who accepted Islam, together with the inhabitants of Punic, Greek, and Roman descent, became amalgamated with the Arabians under the name of Moors. Tarik,1 one of Musa's generals, crossed from northern Africa to Spain, and in the

711. Battle of Xeres de la Frontera (plains of the Guadalquivir) destroyed the kingdom of the Visigoths. From this time on there coëxisted in Spain: 1. the province of the caliphate, which became, at a later date (756), the separate caliphate of Cordova; 2. the Christian kingdom of Asturia, founded by Pelagius, afterwards the kingdom of Leon.

The Arabians penetrated the passes in the country of the Basques and invaded Gaul. Here a limit was set to their conquests by the 732. Battle between Tours and Poitiers, where they were defeated by Charles Martel.

Under the last of the Ommiads the caliphate reached its greatest extent, embracing southwestern Asia from the Gulf of Arabia and the Indus to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus, the entire northern coast of Africa, a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and in southern France the county of Narbona, besides Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic Isles.

In the caliphate declining vigor; constant wars with the followers of Ali. Abul Abbas, great-grandson of an uncle of the prophet, overthrew the last Ommiad caliph, Merwan II.

750-1258. Rule of the Abbasides. Residence at Bagdad. Treacherous murder of all the Ommiad princes (90). One only,

Abd-er-Rahman, escaped to Spain, and founded there the 756. caliphate of Cordova.

§ 5. KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS UNDER THE CAROLINGIANS. 687. Pipin of Heristal, major domus (mayor of the palace) of Austrasia, became by the victory of Testri (not far from St. Quentin) over the major domus of Soissons (Neustria) sole major domus of the whole kingdom of the Franks, and called himself in future dux et princeps Francorum.

732.

Eudes, duke of Aquitaine, defeated by the Arabian invaders, sought help from Charles, the son and successor of the major domus Pipin of Heristal.

Battle between Tours and Poitiers.

Victory of

1 From him comes the name Gibel or Jebel-al-Tarik (Gibraltar), i. e. mountain of Tarik, near which he landed. It would appear that the story of Tarik's having been summoned by the Visigothic count Julian, is mythical. Cf. Dahn, Kön. d. Germ. V. 227.

751.1

Charles Martel (major domus 714-741) over the
Arabs.

With Pipin the Small (741-768), Charles Martel's son, the Carolingians became kings of the Franks. The last king of the Merowingian line (les rois fainéants), Childeric III., was deposed with the consent of Pope Zacharias and placed in a monastery. Pipin was raised upon the shield on the field of Mars at Soissons, as king of the Franks. In 754 Pope Stephen III., who had come to France to seek help, anointed Pipin and his sons Charles and Karlmann as kings of the Franks. For the future Pipin styled himself "king by the grace of God."

In requital of this service Pipin drove back Aistulf, king of the Langobards, who was threatening the Pope (p. 175). Gift of the Exarchate of Ravenna and the Pentapolis (Ancona, Sinigaglia, Fano, Pesaro, Rimini), the territory of Bologna and Ferrara, to the Pope, and thereby the first foundation of the Papal States. Pipin patricius of Rome, that city not being included in the gift to the Pope.2

Bonifacius (the Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried, named Bonifacius by Pope Gregory II.), the apostle of the Germans (about 680-754). He preached Christianity in the country of the East Franks, in Thuringia, Hesse, and Friesland. Bishop since 722, archbishop since 732 without a settled bishopric, he brought all newly founded bishoprics and monasteries into strict dependence upon the Papal chair. In 742 Concilium Germanicum, recognition of the Pope as head of the Church. In 748 Bonifacius became the first archbishop of Mainz; in 754 he was killed by the heathen Friesians.

768-814. Charles the Great (Charlemagne),

since the death of his brother Karlmann (771), sole ruler. Karlmann's sons took refuge with Desiderius, king of the Langobards, whose daughter Charles had married, but afterwards rejected.

773-774. Destruction of the kingdom of the Langobards.

The Pope having refused to crown the sons of Karlmann, Desiderius occupied the Pentapolis and threatened Rome. Charles came to the assistance of the Pope, ex officio, as patricius of Rome. Capture of Pavia after a six months' siege, during which Charles had visited Rome and renewed his alliance with the Pope. Desiderius placed in a monastery. Charles, king of Italy, by which is meant the kingdom of the Langobards, northern and central Italy. The larger part of southern Italy remained in the possession of the Eastern Empire. 772-804. War with the Saxons.

The country of the Saxons was divided as follows. Westphalia, on the Sieg, Ruhr, and Lippe, and on both sides of the Ems;

1 See the proof in G. Richter, Annalen d. deutschen Geschichte im Mittelal ter, I. p. 216.

2 See, however, Oelsner, Jahrb. d. fränk. Reichs unter König Pippin, Chap. IX. p. 129 foll.

Engern, on both sides of the Weser as far as the Leine; Eastphalia, as far as the Elbe; Northalbingia, N. of the lower Elbe to the Eider.

The Saxon war was resolved upon in the assembly (May-field) at Worms (772).

772. Capture of the Eresburg, destruction of the Irminsul. 775. Capture of Sigiburg. Subjugation of the Saxons W. of the Elbe. The Saxons destroyed the Eresburg, but were subjugated anew. 776-777. First May-field in the land of the Saxons, at Paderborn. New insurrection of the Saxons upon receipt of the news of Charles's defeat in the Pyrenees, 778; subdued by the army of the east Franks and Alamanni. 779, Charles gained a victory at Bocholt on the Aa. 780, Submission of the Saxons; acceptance of Christianity.

After a new and general revolt headed by Widukind or Wittekind, and a defeat of the Frankish army, Charles took the field in person with success. 782, Slaughter of 4500 Saxons on the Aller. 783, A new and terrible uprising, the result of this massacre. Charles victorious first at Detmold, then on the Hase. 785, After a two years' resistance Wittekind submitted and became a Christian.

778. Wars of Charles in Spain. Conquest of Saragossa. Return by Roncevaux, and defeat of the Frankish rearguard. Death of the hero Roland, margrave of the Breton coast, a pretended nephew of Charles, whose deeds are celebrated in a series of romances. The Spanish mark1 was of later foundation, and was strengthened by Ludwig, son of Charles (800).

788. Abolition of the duchy of the Bajuvariæ (Bavarians), after the second revolt of duke Tassilo.

Wars with the Northmen (the common name of the Germans of the Scandinavian north), and with the Slavs. Charles defeated the Wiltzi and advanced to the Peene (789).

796.

791-799. War with the Avars (who had aided Tassilo, duke of Bavaria) conducted principally by Charles' son Pipin. Storm of the King's Ring (the chief camp of the Avars) between the Danube and the Theiss. The country between the Ems and the Raab was annexed to the Frankish empire and occupied by German colonists, especially by Bavarians. (Soon after, complete ruin of the kingdom of the Avars.)

800. Charles revived the office of Emperor of the West.

Pope Leo III., ill-treated by the relatives of his predecessor in an insurrection, and expelled from the city (799), sought Charles' camp at Paderborn. Restored by Charles to Rome, he crowned him emperor on Christmas-day, 800.

793-804. New revolts among the Saxons particularly in the N., led to a war with the Danes, with whom the Saxons had taken refuge. Gottfried, king of Denmark, invaded the Frankish mark; his ships harassed the coasts of the German Ocean.

1 Mark a strip of land on the border of a country, where the military power was especially well kept up, under a Markgraf (border-count), who was responsible for the safety of the border. - TRANS.