Wars with the Christian kingdoms, occasionally in alliance with Morocco.

1492. Conquest of Granada and union of the kingdom with Castile.

The kingdoms of Castile and Aragon during this period were involved in constant wars, ever renewed and of varying fortune, with the Moors and with one another. In both kingdoms bloody wars of succession and civil wars.

Of the kings of Castile may be mentioned, in the thirteenth century Sancho IV., in the fourteenth Peter the Cruel and Henry the Bastard, the first of whom was aided, in his war with Henry for the throne, by England (victory of the Black Prince at Najara, 1367), the latter by France. Mercenary bands or free companies, under Bertrand du Guescelin. Peter defeated and killed at Montiel in 1369.

Peter III. (1276-1285) of Aragon acquired the crown of Sicily, which he bequeathed to his second son, James, while his eldest son, Alphonso III., succeeded him in Aragon. His successor, Peter IV., curbed the excessive power of the nobility of Aragon. In 1410, after the extinction of the royal family of Catalonia, a Castilian prince, Ferdinand, ascended the throne of Aragon. His grandson, Ferdinand the Catholic (1479–1516), by the marriage which he had made before his elevation to the throne with Isabella, heiress of Castile, laid the foundation for the final union of the two kingdoms.

Portugal.

The legitimate line of Burgundy became extinct (1383), and was succeeded by the illegitimate Burgundian line. Heroic age of Portugal, which now reached its greatest power. Conquests, Ceuta, Tangiers; formation of a Christian kingdom of Algarbe on the northern coast of Africa. Voyages and discoveries (p. 279), under the patronage of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (1394-1460; discovery of Porto Santo and Madeira, 1418-19; Cape Verde, 1445; Azores, 1447; Cape Verde Islands, 1455).

§ 6. THE NORTH AND EAST.

Denmark, Norway, Sweden.

Each a united kingdom from about 850 on, converted to Christianity about 1000, these three kingdoms were united by the Union of Calmar (1397). Margaret, queen of Denmark, daughter of Waldemar IV., married Hako VIII. of Norway, and after the death of Hako succeeded to the throne, at first for her minor son († 1387). The crown of Sweden was transferred to her by the estates of that kingdom. The union lasted (interrupted by Sweden) to 1524.

Russia.

From 862 to 1598, under the house of Rurik, converted by Vladimir the Great 988, soon divided into many principalities, which were in theory subordinate to the Grand Prince of Kiev, but practically were

tolerably independent. During the supremacy of the Mongols in Russia, which endured 250 years, there grew up a new grand principality, that of Moscow, which after the devastation of Kiev by the Mongols (1239), and its conquest by the Lithuanians (1320, p. 169), became the national centre of Russia. After a long contest the Mongol supremacy in Russia was overthrown (1480) by Ivan IV., the Great, the founder of the united monarchy. Republic of Novgorod subjugated (1478).

Poland.

Under the Piasts (840-1370, Christian about 1000) involved in war with Germany, with the heathen Prussians (later with the Teutonic knights), and with Russia. The last king of this house was Casimir the Great. Short union with Hungary under Louis the Great (1370-1382). Louis' younger daughter, Hedwig, married the grand duke of Lithuania, Vladislav II. Jagello, whereby Poland and Lithuania were united under the house of Jagello from 1386 to 1572. Conversion of Lithuania.

Prussia.

Conquered in the thirteenth century by the Teutonic order (p. 218), since 1309 residence of the grand master at Marienburg. The order attained its greatest power under Winrich von Kniprode (13511382); beginning of a gradual decline. Defeat of the order by the Poles at Tannenberg (1410).

The energy and daring of Henry of Plauen brought about the advantageous first peace of Thorn (1411). The revolt of the Prussian nobles in the country and the cities and their alliance with Poland led to the second peace of Thorn (1466): West Prussia and Ermeland ceded to Poland; the order retained East Prussia as a Polish fief.

Hungary.

Toward the close of the ninth century Hungary was occupied by the Finnish1 tribe of Magyars (p. 193); until 1301 under the reigning house of the Arpads. Introduction of Christianity by the duke Geisa and his son St. Stephan, the first king of Hungary (crowned 1000). Extensive immigration of Germans. Ecclesiastical division of the country into ten bishoprics; political division into seventy-two counties (Gespanschaften). Formation of a powerful aristocracy (Magnats). The Golden Bull extorted from King Andrew II. (contemporary of the emperor Frederic II.), after his return from a crusade (p. 216), is the foundation of the privileges of the Hungarian nobility.

After the extinction of the Arpads, Hungary came under the house of Anjou (1308-1382). Period of greatest power under Louis the Great (1342-1382), who in 1370, succeeded to the throne of Poland also.

Under Sigismund of the house of Luxemburg (1387–1437), be

1 Vambery, Ursprung d. Magyaren, endeavors to prove the Turkish origin of this people; they were, at all events, Turanian. - TRANS.

ginning of the decline of the kingdom. Albert of Austria (1438– 1439), and afterwards, Vladislav III. of Poland, elected king; the latter fell at Varna (1444) in battle against the Turks, whereupon Albert's minor son, Ladislaus Postumus, succeeded. The chancellor of the kingdom, John Hunyadi, defeated the Turks at Belgrade (1456). After his death and that of Ladislaus, Hunyadi's son, Matthias Corvinus, became king (1458-1490). After his brilliant reign Hungary was united with Bohemia under Ladislaus II., of the house of Jagello, and the succession was secured to the archduke Maximilian of Austria.

Turks, Mongols, and the Eastern Empire.

Supremacy of the Osman (Ottoman) Turks, Turcoman nomads, founded in Asia Minor by Osman I., about 1300. His successors, Urchan, Murad I., and Bajazet I., extended Turkish power during the fourteenth century to the confines of Europe (Adrianople, residence of the sovereigns in 1365).

The development of the Osmanic power was temporarily checked by the Mongols under Timur Lenk (i. e. the Lame), commonly called Tamerlane or Timur the Tatar, Bajazet being defeated and captured in 1402 at Angora. One of Bajazet's successors, Muhammed II., destroyed the Eastern Empire, which had been under the rule of the Palæologi since 1261, by the

1453. Conquest of Constantinople.

Flight of Grecian scholars to Italy, where they taught in the universities, and gave the impulse to a new study of Grecian literature.

China.

In 1403 the rebellious prince, Yen, succeeded to the throne under the name Yung-lo (1403-1425), and proved an efficient ruler, carrying his arms into Tatary, and annexing Cochin-China and Tonquin to China. Under Seuen-tih (1426-1436) Cochin-China revolted. Chingtung (1436-1465) fell into the hands of the Tatars in 1450, and remained a prisoner until released by a Chinese victory in 1457. The quiet reigns of Ching-hwa (1465–1488) and Hung-che (14881506) were unmarked by important events.

Japan.

Under the domination of the Ashikaga Shoguns (1336-1573), whose founder, Ashikaga-Taka-Uji, set up a rival emperor, Japan was under two dynasties, the southern (legitimate) at Yoshino, the northern (usurpers) at Kioto; the true sovereigns, meantime, were the Shoguns at Kioto. The period is a dark one, filled with constant wars between the dynasties, and civil wars in Kioto.

It is curious to reflect that in the midst of these wretched wars Columbus was sending messengers into the interior of Cuba charged with letters to the sovereign of Japan, whereby he hoped to open communication for Spain with a monarch whose power was as limitless as his wealth.

III. MODERN HISTORY.

FIRST PERIOD.

FROM THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA (1492-1648).

§ 1. INVENTIONS, DISCOVERIES, AND COLONIES.

Three inventions, whose discovery belongs to the Middle Age, but which came into more common use at the beginning of the modern period, have played a very important part in the total change in society which followed. 1. The magnetic needle, probably early discovered by the Chinese, applied in navigation (compass) in the east in the thirteenth century; in the west at the beginning of the fourteenth (by Flavio Gioja ?). This invention materially advanced the discoveries of the new era. 2. Gunpowder, probably introduced into Europe from Asia (China, India, Arabia). According to a tradition whose truth can no longer be maintained, invented by the monk, Berthold Schwarz, at Freiburg in the Breisgau, 1354 (?). It was first used in Europe about the middle of the fourteenth century. The new class of weapons thus introduced were at first in the highest degree imperfect, and of but little value; but their improvement gradually brought about a complete revolution in military science and art, and thereby led to the destruction of chivalry. Standing armies took the place of the feudal levies, and aided the princes to triumph over the lower order of feudal nobility. 3. Printing (p. 253), which was more widely spread after the conquest of Mainz (1462), had scattered the assistants of Fust to various lands. This invention would, however, have very largely failed of its effect, but for the improvement made at about the same time in the manufacture of Paper. 1492. Discovery of America by Columbus (Colon).

For details and the further course of discovery see page 282, etc.

1498. Ocean route to the East Indies discovered by Vasco de Gama.

After the Canary Islands, Madeira, and the Azores had been discovered by daring sailors (especially Italians) in the first half of the fourteenth century, but had since been partially forgotten, the Portuguese at the instance of the Infant, Henry the Navigator (p. 276), be

gan in 1415 to push southward along the coast of Africa in order to find the way to India. The death of Henry (1460) interrupted the progress of discovery for a considerable time, but in 1486 Bartholomæus Diaz reached Cabo tormentoso, called by John II., Cabo de buena esperanza (Cape of Good Hope), and in 1498 Vasco de Gama landed on the coast of Malabar (Calicut, p. 353). (Martin Behaim of Nuremberg, author of the celebrated globe still preserved in that city, which shows the state of geographical knowledge just before the discovery of America (1492), was in the service of the king of Portugal.)

The Eastern trade (in silk, cotton, pearls, spices and other luxuries), had been carried on partly by land through central Asia, and partly across the Isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea, and across Arabia and through the Persian Gulf. The conquests of Islam, and especially the capture of Constantinople, had greatly diminished the number of profitable routes, so that the discovery of a new route became of great importance, especially to the maritime nations of western Europe who had been excluded from trade with the East, wherein the merchant republics of Italy, Pisa, Genoa, Venice, had grown rich and powerful. The Portuguese attempted the eastern route around Africa. Columbus found at the court of Spain patrons willing to try the experiment of a western route, at once (according to the data with which he reckoned) shorter and simpler.

The success of the Portuguese struck a mortal blow at the prosperity of Alexandria and the great cities of Italy, and secured a monopoly of the Eastern trade to Portugal for one hundred years, after which it passed into the hands of the Dutch and English.

The failure of Columbus had a still greater importance in history, disclosing a new world, where immigrants from the old should develop new political constitutions and new social conditions.

The Portuguese power in the East Indies was founded by the viceroy Almeida (1504-1509), and especially by Albuquerque (1509-1515; see p. 353).

1519-1522. First voyage around the world under Ferdinand Magalhães (Magellan),

a Portuguese who had entered the Spanish service. Passage to the Pacific through the Straits of Magellan. Magalhães was killed in 1521 on one of the Philippine Islands.

§ 2. AMERICA.

It is probable that as early as 1000 the Northmen, who had occupied Iceland since 874 and had thence made settlements in Greenland (985), had not only discovered but had tried to colonize the continent of America (Vinland).1

1 More than a dozen claims to the discovery or attempts at the discovery of America before Columbus have been preferred by various nationalities, a brief list of which is here appended: 1. St Brandan (565) and St. Maclovius (Malo) in the sixth century. 2. Seven Spanish bishops (714 or 734); Island of Seven Cities, also called Antillia, a name afterwards transferred to the Antilles. 3. Buddhist priests from China (458), followed by Hoei-Shin (499),