fested a desire to come to an agreement with the king. Virtual repeal of the non-communication resolution.

1648, May 2. Ordinance for suppression of blasphemies and heresies, aimed at the independents, especially at Cromwell, Ireton, etc. July 20-29. Parliament resolved to open negotiations with the king. Aug. 14. Holles resumed his seat.

Royalist outbreaks in Wales, Cornwall, Devon, Kent; riots in
London.

July 25. The duke of Hamilton led a Scotch army into England. Cromwell having suppressed the rising in Wales met the Scots in the

Aug. 17-20. Three days' battle at Preston Pans,

and annihilated their army.

Aug. 28. Surrender of Colchester to Fairfax. End of the second civil war.

Sept. 18-Nov. "Treaty of Newport" negotiated between the king and the parliament, without result.

Nov. 16. Grand remonstrance of the army.

Dec. 1. Charles seized by the army and carried to Hurst Castle. Dec. 4. The army entered London (19 peers, 232 commons). Dec. 5. Parliament voted that the king's propositions formed a basis on which an agreement might be reached. This vote was the last straw; the army took matters into its own hands.

Dec. 6–7. Pride's Purge. Colonel Pride, by order of the council of officers, forcibly excluded the Presbyterian members (96) from the parliament.

The "Rump" Parliament (some 60 members).

Dec. 13. Repeal of the vote to proceed with the treaty. Vote that Charles should be brought to trial. The king conveyed to Windsor (Dec. 23).

1649, Jan. 1. Appointment of a high court of justice (135 members) to try the king; as this was rejected by the lords (Jan. 2) the commons resolved

Jan. 4. That legislative power resided solely with the com

mons.

Jan. 6. Passage of the ordinance without the concurrence of the lords.

Jan. 20. Agreement of the people, a form of government drawn up

by the army.

Jan. 20-27. Trial of Charles I. before the high court (67 members present, Bradshaw presiding); the king merely denied the jurisdiction of the court. He was sentenced to death.

Jan. 30. Execution of Charles I. at Whitehall in London.

§ 9. THE NORTH AND EAST.

The Union of the three Scandinavian kingdoms, weakened by the action of Sweden, since the election of

1448. Christian I. of Oldenburg, as king of the Union, was completely dissolved in consequence of the cruelties of Christian II.

1520. Massacre of Stockholm. Revolt of the Dalecarlians under the conduct of Gustavus Vasa (b. 1496, hostage in Denmark, 1518, fled to Dalecarlia, 1519, concealed himself under disguises and worked in the mines). He defeated the Danes, and became first administrator of the kingdom, then king (1523).

Sweden.

1523-1654. House of Vasa.

1523-1560. Gustavus I., Vasa. Introduction of the Reformation. The throne made hereditary. Gustavus I. was succeeded by his eldest son Erik XIV., who, being insane, was deposed and murdered. His successor was the second son of Gustavus, John III., whose son Sigismund was Catholic, and king of Poland (1587), and hence displaced in Sweden by his uncle Charles IX. the youngest son of Gustavus I. Charles's son, 1611-1632. Gustavus II. Adolphus, conducted successful wars with

Poland and Russia. For his participation in the Thirty Years' War and his death see p. 311. He was followed by his daughter 1632-1654. Christina, who was well educated, but averse to affairs

of government. She abdicated in 1654 in favor of her cousin Charles Gustavus of Pfalz-Zweibrücken, son of a sister of Gustavus Adolphus. Christina became a Catholic and died at Rome, 1689.

Denmark and Norway.

These countries remained united. Under Christian II. the Reformation began to spread into Denmark. Christian was displaced by his uncle, the duke of Schleswig-Holstein, who ascended the Danish

throne as

1523-1533. Frederic I. and favored the Reformation.

After his

death (1533), the so-called Feuds of the Counts (Jürgen Wullenwever, burghermaster of Lübeck). Frederic's son 1536-1559. Christian III. completed the introduction of the Reformation. For the participation of Christian IV. in the Thirty Years' War, see p. 310. After a 1643-1645. War with Sweden, Christian was obliged to surrender the islands of Gotland and Oesel at the Peace of Brömsebro (p. 315).

Poland.

1386-1572. Jagallons. The kingdom reached its greatest extent (Baltic, Carpathians, Black Sea), but already the germ of decay was forming in the privileges of the numerous nobility. 1572-1791. Poland an elective monarchy. Introduction of the

liberum veto. Elected kings: Henry of Anjou (p. 322); Stephen Bathory of Transylvania, followed by three kings of the house of Vasa; Sigismund III., Vladislas IV., John Casimir (to 1668).

Russia.

After the extinction of the house of Rurik (1598), and a war of succession lasting ten years (the false Demetrius)

1613. The house of Romanow succeeded to the throne, which it occupied until 1762.

Turks.

The empire of the Ottoman Turks reached its highest development under Soliman II. (1520–1566), the Magnificent, the contemporary of the emperor Charles V. (p. 303). Under his successors began the decline, caused especially by the influence of the Janizaries.

India.

1497. Covilham reached Calicut by land from Portugal.

1498. Portuguese vessels under Vasco da Gama reached Calicut by the way of the Cape of Good Hope.

The Muhammedan power which the sultans of Delhi under various dynasties had extended over almost all India, broke up in the latter half of the fourteenth and during the fifteenth century. When the Portuguese gained a foothold in the peninsula, its political constitution was as follows: At Delhi, Muhammedan sultans of the Afghan dynasty with greatly reduced dominion; in Bengal (1340-1576), Afghan (Muhammedan) kings; in Guzerat (1391–1573) a Muhammedan dynasty had its capital at Ahmedabad; in the Deccan the Muhammedan empire of the Bahmaní (1347–1525) had separated into five kingdoms: Bijápur (1489–1686), Golconda (1512–1687), Ahmednagar (1490–1636), Ellichpur (1484-1572), Bidar (14921609[57]. The southern part of the peninsula was still in the hands of the powerful Hindu kingdom, Vijayanagar (1118–1565).

Da Gama was followed in 1500 by Cabral (on the voyage accidental discovery (?) of Brazil); in 1502 a papal bull created the king of Portugal "Lord of the navigation, conquests, and trade of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India." First Portuguese governor and viceroy of India, Almeida (1505). In 1509 Alfonso d' Albuquerque was appointed to this office; capture of Goa (1510), and of Malacca. 1526-1761 (1857). Mughal (Mogul) Empire in India.

The founder of the Mughal empire was Babar, a descendant of Tamerlane (1494 king of Ferghana on the Jaxartes, 1497 conqueror of Samarkand, seized Kabul, 1504), who in 1526 invaded the Punjab and defeated the sultan of Delhi in the

1526. Battle of Panipat.1

Defeat of the Rajputs of Chittor (1527). Under Bábar's son Humáyún (1530–56) the Mughals were driven from India by Sher Shah, the Afghan ruler of Bengal; but they returned in 1556 and under Humayun's son Akbar (Bairam the real commander), defeated the Afghans at Panipat (1556).

1556-1605. Akbar the Great

whose reign is a long series of conquests.

1 The first of the three great battles which decided the fate of India on that same plain; viz. in 1526, 1556, 1761. (Hunter, Indian Empire, p. 234.)

1565. Battle of Talikot.

Destruction of the Hindoo empire of Vijayanagar by a union of the Muhammedan kingdoms of the Deccan.

Conquests of Akbar : 1561-68, Rajputs of Jaipur, Jodhpur, Chitlor; 1572-73, Guzerat (revolted 1581, reconquered 1593); 1586–92 Kashmir; 1592, Sind; 1594, Kandahar, Akbar's empire now comprised all India north of the Vindhyar Mts. ; in the Deccan he was not successful. Akbar organized the administration, reformed the military and financial system, and conciliated the Hindus. Akbar was succeeded by his son Salim, Jahangir (1605-27). His reign was much troubled by rebellions, and his wars in the Deccan were without lasting success. Shah Jahan (1628-1658). Kandahár, several times lost and recovered between the Mughals and the Persians, was finally lost by the Mughal empire, 1653. Shah Jahan won some successes in the Deccan; submission of Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar. The empire was at the height of its power and magnificence (peacock throne). Shah Jahán deposed by his son Aurangzeb, and imprisoned (died 1666).

From 1500 to 1600 the Portuguese had enjoyed a monopoly of the trade with India; with the close of the sixteenth century, the Dutch and English appeared as their rivals. The East India Company of London was incorporated in 1660, and various others similar companies were established at different times; but all were ultimately incorporated with the original company. ("The Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading to the East Indies," 1600; Courten's Association ["Assador Merchants"] 1635-1650; "Company of Merchant Adventurers," 1655-1657; "General Society trading to the East Indies" ["English Company"], 1698–1709, united with the original company as "The United Company of Merchants of England trading to the East Indies "). The first twelve voyages were separate ventures; after 1612 voyages were made for the company. Opposition of the Portuguese. Battle of Swally. Defeat of the Portuguese. Establishment of an English factory at Surat, 1614. Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir (Great Mogul), 1615. Treaty with the Dutch, 1619, without lasting effect. Massacre of English on the island of Amboyna (1623) followed by the withdrawal of the English from the Indian Archipelago (1624). Presidency of Bantam, 1635. Foundation of Madras (Fort St. George), 1639.

Dutch East India Company, 1602. French East India Companies 1604, 1611, 1615, 1642 (Richelieu's).

China.

1506-1522. Ching-tih. Rebellion of the prince of Ning suppressed after a severe war. About 1522 the Portuguese established

themselves at Macao.

1542. Tatar invasion under Yen-ta, in the reign of Kea-tsing. Coast of China ravaged by a Japanese fleet.

1567-1573. Lung-king. His reign was troubled by the Tatars, to relieve the country of whom he resorted to bribery.

1573-1620. Wan-leih. The Tatars continuing their disturbances the emperor gave Yen-ta lands in the province of Shen-se.

1592. The Japanese invaded Corea, but were defeated and compelled

to sue for peace.

1597. The Japanese renewed the attack and defeated a Chinese fleet and army, but suddenly evacuated the peninsula.

1603. Ricci, the Jesuit, at the Chinese court; he preached Christianity in China († 1610).

1604. Dutch in China; also the Spanish.

1616. Invasion of China by Manchoo Tatars who defeated the Chinese, and returning in

1619, Conquered and settled in the province of Leaou-tung.

1620. Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, threw off the pretense of allegiance to the Chinese and proclaimed his independence. He established his capital at San-Koo.

Wen-leih was succeeded by Tai-chang (1620), who was followed by Teen-ke (1620-1627). In

1627, Tsung-ching, the last sovereign of the Ming (1368-1643) dynasty ascended the throne. Rebellion of Le Tsze-ching and Shang Ko-he. The emperor, being hard pressed, applied for aid to the Manchoo Tatars. These allies defeated the rebels, but refused to abandon the fruits of their victories. Seizing Pekin they raised to the throne of China a son of Teen-ning, the Manchoo ruler, who, as the first of the

1644-x, Ta-tsing or Great Pure dynasty, took the name of 1644. Shun-che.

Capture of Nan-king. Period of confusion wherein the lingering resistance of the Chinese was gradually crushed out, and the shaved head and pig-tail, signs of Tatar sovereignty, became more and more common.

Japan.

The period of the Ashikaga shoguns (1344-1573) contains few events of importance, especially after the end of the dual dynasties in 1391, by the act of the southern emperor, who resigned his power on the condition that the imperial office should henceforward alternate between the two lines. The violation of this agreement was the cause of much fighting.

1558-1588. Oki-Machi, mikado.

This reign saw the fall of the Ashikagas, and the rise of three of the most renowned men of Japan: Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, Tokugawa Iyeyasu. Introduction of cannon. The development of feudalism had weakened the power of the shoguns, as they had formerly destroyed that of the mikado. Ota Nobunaga was a feudal lord who acquired fame in a war with the head of another powerful family, Yoshimoto (1560). To him the mikado entrusted the task of pacifying the unhappy country, while his aid was also sought by Yoshiaki, the rightful shogun, who had been dispossessed by Yoshikage. By the battle of Anagawa (1570), where Tokugawa Iyeyasu fought under Nobunaga, Yoshiaki was restored to power, but in 1573 he was deposed by Nobunaga, whom he had plotted to murder.