1799, April 8. Dissolution of the Congress of Rastadt. Mysterious murder of the French ambassadors, Roberjot and Bonnier (Debry escaped), on their journey home, by Austrian hussars from Transylvania (Apr. 28).

June 4-7. Massena defeated by archduke Charles at Zürich. Macdonald being called to upper Italy, the king of Naples returned and the Parthenopean Republic was abolished. Terrible vengeance, accompanied by massacres. Nelson, Lady Hamilton. Abolition of the Roman Republic.

June 17-19. Macdonald defeated by Suvaroff on the Trebbia. Mantua taken by the allies. The directory sent Joubert to Italy He was defeated in the bloody

with a new army. Aug. 15. Battle of Novi by Suvaroff and Melas. Joubert.† Suvaroff crossed the Alps by the pass of St. Gothard in order to unite with the second Russian army under Korsakoff, who had taken the place of archduke Charles when the latter went to the middle Rhine, in Switzerland.

His army however had already been defeated at Zürich by Massena. Suvaroff left Switzerland after a series of terrible battles and marches, and returned to Russia.

A Russian-Turkish fleet had wrested the Ionian islands from French control in May, 1799. Erection of the Republic of the Ionian Islands under Turkish protection, and the guarantee of Russia, which occupied the same until 1807.

June 18. Revolution of 3d Prairial. Reorganization of the directory under Sieyes; a revolution which resulted in the return of Bonaparte.

1799, Oct. The duke of York was defeated and capitulated at Alkmar.

Oct. 8. Bonaparte, returning unannounced from Egypt, landed at Fréjus, and in alliance with the directors,

June. Sieyes and Roger-Ducos and his brother, Lucien Bonaparte, president of the council of five hundred, overthrew the directory by the

Nov. 9, Coup d'Etat of the 18th Brumaire,

and broke up the council of five hundred upon the following day.

1799-1804. The Government of the Consulate

with Napoleon Bonaparte as regent under the title of first consul for ten years, and two consuls appointed by him, Cambacérès and Lebrun, who had consultative voices only.

The new (fourth) constitution (constitution of the year VIII.), originally devised by Sieyes, but essentially changed by Napoleon, and accepted by direct vote of the whole nation (3,000,000 to 1,567), preserved the appearance of a republic but in reality established a military monarchy. A senate (80 well paid senators elected for life with but little to do), appointed, from lists of names sent in by the departments, the members of the legislative department, the higher officials and the judges. Legislative power without the initiative: 1. tribunate

(100) discussed the proposals of the government without voting. 2. The legislative chamber (300) could only accept or reject these proposals, without debate. The executive power was in the hands of the first consul, who was aided by a council of state.

The people voted for notables of the communes, who then elected a tenth of their number as notables of the departments, whence were elected a tenth portion, the notables of France, from which latter list the senate appointed the members of the legislative bodies.

Establishment of prefectures (administration of the departments) and sub-prefectures (administration of the arrondissements), and consequent creation of that centralization which still prevails in France. New system of tax-collection; receveur-général for each department (abolished under the second empire), receveur particulier for each arrondissement. Code Napoléon commenced.

The overtures of peace made by the first consul were rejected. Paul, emperor of Russia, however, was won over by Napoleon's flattery, and withdrew from the coalition. Defensive alliance between Russia and Sweden (1799), closer connection between Russia and Prussia. Paul quarreled with England in regard to Malta. Renewal of the previous (1780) armed neutrality at sea (p. 536). Northern convention (1800).

1800. Double campaign of the French in Italy under Napoleon Bonaparte, in Upper Germany under Moreau.

April. A. In Italy.

Massena defeated at Voltri; Melas advanced to Nice. Obstinate defense of Genoa by Massena (and Soult); after a terriJune 4. ble famine (15,000 people perished) the city capitulated to May. Ott. Meantime passage of the Great St. Bernard by Bonaparte. (The fortress of Bard, passed by a detour). June 2. Capture of Milan. Restoration of the Cisalpine Republic. General Melas, after a brave contest, and after victory had once been in his hands, defeated by a second attack in the 1800, June 14. Battle of Marengo, by Napoleon.

Desaix †. According to the truce concluded with Melas, all fortresses west of the Mincio and south of the Po were surrendered by the Austrians to the French.

B. In Germany: Moreau crossed the Rhine from Alsace in April, and advanced, winning victories at Engen and Stockach, toward Kray (May). Moreau in Munich (July). Truce until November. Recommencement of hostilities. Moreau defeated the archduke John in the

1800, Dec. 3. Battle of Hohenlinden,

captured Salzburg and advanced to the Linz. Truce of Steyer. After Brune in Italy had won a battle on the Mincio (Dec.) and had crossed the Adige (Jan. 1, 1801), a truce was concluded in Treviso, which was succeeded by the

1801, Feb. 9. Peace of Lunéville,

from which the abolition of the old Holy Roman Empire practically dates.

Chief conditions: 1. Ratification of the cessions made by Austria and to her in the peace of Campo Formio (p. 459). 2. Čession of the grand duchy of Tuscany (Austrian secundogeniture) to Parma, to be indemnified in Germany. 3. The Emperor and Empire consented to the cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, the valley of the Rhine (i. e. the middle of the river), the boundary. The princes who lost by this operation received indemnification in Germany. 4. Recognition of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, and Ligurian Republics. Germany lost by this peace, taking the Belgic territory into account, 25,180 square miles with almost 3,500,000 inhabitants. The German princes received an increase of territory. The shameful negotiations over the indemnifications lasted more than two years (p. 465), during which time the ambassadors of German princes haunted the antechambers of the First Consul to beg for better terms, and bribed French ambassadors, secretaries and their mistresses.

Tuscany was transformed into the kingdom of Etruria, for the satisfaction of Parma. Besides losing Parma, a Spanish secundogeniture, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, which afterwards sold it to the United States (1803). The peace of Lunéville was succeeded, after conclusion of a truce, by the 1801, March 18. Peace of Florence with Naples. Conditions : 1. Closure of the harbors to British and Turkish vessels. 2. Cession of the Neapolitan possessions in central Italy and the island of Elba. 3. Reception of French garrisons in several Italian towns.

Prussia joined the Northern Convention against England. Occupa

tion of Hanover.

1801, March 23. Paul I., Emperor of Russia, murdered. He was succeeded by his son,

1801-1825. Alexander I.

Reconciliation between Russia and England (in 1801 England had attacked Denmark, the ally of Russia, and forced her to withdraw from the Northern Convention). The Northern Convention was now dissolved.

1800. Conspiracies against the life of Bonaparte. Infernal machines. 130 "Terrorists and Jacobins " transported, although the attempts had originated with the royalists.

In Egypt the chief command after the departure of Bonaparte had devolved upon Kleber, who defeated the Turks in the battle of Hieropolis (1800, March). After the murder of Kléber at Cairo (June), Menou became commander-in-chief. He concluded a treaty with the English at Cairo (1801), under which Egypt was to be abandoned and returned to the Ottoman Porte, and the French army transported to France by the English fleet.

1801.

Union of Ireland with Great Britain under one parliament. In France restoration of the Catholic worship, and after long negotiations with the papacy, conclusion of a

1801. Concordat (executed in 1802), whereby the (10) French archbishops and (50) bishops were to be appointed and supported by the government, and confirmed by the Pope. Pius VIÎ., elected in 1800 in Venice, was recognized in the possession of the

Papal States, without Ferrara, Bologna, and the Romagna. The liberties of the Gallican church were strongly asserted. By the new organization of the "Université," an incorporated body of teachers who had passed a state examination, the entire system of higher education was made dependent upon the government. The institut national was reorganized and divided into four (later five) academies : 1. académie française (1635); 2. a. des inscriptions et belles-lettres (1663, 1701); 3. a. des sciences (1666); 4. a. des beaux arts (1648); 5. a. des sciences morales et politiques (1832).

After the withdrawal of the younger Pitt from the English cabinet, and after long negotiations, the

1802. March 27. Peace of Amiens

was concluded between England and France.

1. Surrender of all conquests made by England to France and her allies, excepting Trinidad which was ceded by Spain, and Ceylon which was ceded by the Batavian Republic. 2. France recognized the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands. Malta must be restored to the order of the Knights of Malta. In consequence of this peace, peace was concluded between France and the Porte.

Creation of the order of the Legion of Honor (May 19, 1802). Assumption of regal state and authority. Napoleon Bonaparte caused himself to be elected by a popular vote (plébiscite, 31 millions), Consul for life, with the right of appointing his

1802, August 2.

successor.

New (fifth) constitution. The powers of the senate, which was ruled by the first consul, were enlarged; the importance of the legislative bodies and the tribunate was very decidedly reduced.

Napoleon had already become president of the Italian Republic, as the Cisalpine Republic was henceforward called. Elba and Piedmont were annexed to France. Military interference of the French in Switzerland, which was torn with civil dissensions. The act of mediation restored the independence of the separate cantons, but the country remained still so far a single state that it was represented by a landamman and a diet.

As regards the internal relations of Germany, the peace of Lunéville was executed according to a plan of indemnification established by France and Russia by the

1803, Feb. Enactment of the delegates of the empire. (Reichsdeputations hauptschluss).1

Of the ecclesiastical estates there were left only: 1. the former elector of Mainz, now electoral archchancellor, with a territory formed out of the remains of the archbishopric of Mainz on the right bank of the Rhine, the bishopric of Regensburg, and the cities of Regensburg and Witzlar. 2. the masters of the order of St. John, and the Teutonic order. 3. Of the 48 free imperial cities which still existed, only 6 were left, the 3 Hanseatic cities: Lübeck, Hamburg, Bremen, and Frankfort, Augsburg, Nuremberg. All other ecclesiastical estates and imperial cities were devoted to indemnifications. The electoral bishoprics of Trier and Cologne were abolished. Four new electorates : Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Würtemburg, Salzburg.

1 Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats u. Rechtsgeschichte, IV. § 606.

Principal Indemnifications: 1. The grand duchy of Tuscany: Salzburg, and Berchtesgaden. 2. Duke of Modena: Breisgau (in exchange for which Austria received the ecclesiastical foundations of Trient and Brixen). 3. Bavaria: bishoprics of Würzburg, Bamberg, Freising, Augsburg, the majority of the prelacies and imperial cities in Franconia and eastern Swabia, in return for which, 4. Baden received that portion of the Palatinate lying on the right bank of the Rhine (Heidelberg, Mannheim). Baden also received: the portion of the bishoprics of Constance, Basle, Strasburg, Speyer, on the right bank of the Rhine, and many ecclesiastical foundations and imperial cities. 5. Würtemberg: many abbeys, monasteries, and imperial cities, especially Reutlingen, Esslingen, Heilbronn, etc. Prussia: the bishoprics of Paderborn, Hildesheim, the part of Thuringia which had belonged to Mainz (Eichfeld and Erfurt), a part of Münster, many abbeys, particularly Quedlinburg, and the imperial cities, Mühlhausen, Nordhausen, Goslar. 7. Oldenburg: bishopric of Lübeck. 8. Hanover bishopric of Osnabrück. 9. Hesse (Darmstadt and Cassel) and Nassau divided the portions of the archbishoprics of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, which remained, upon the right bank of the Rhine. 10. Nassau-Orange: bishopric of Fulda, and abbey of Corvey. As a rule the indemnified princes gained considerably in territory and subjects. 1803. New dissensions between France and England, caused by the refusal to surrender Malta and the quarrels of the journalists. The French occupied Hanover, where they nearly exhausted the resources of the state. The encampment at Boulogne threatened England with an invasion.

Conspiracy against the life of the First Consul discovered (1804, Feb.). Pichegru met a mysterious death in prison, George Cadoudal was executed. Moreau fled to America. The duke of Enghien, a Bourbon prince of the branch line of Condé, was taken by violence from the territory of Baden, condemned by a commission acting in accordance with the wishes and under the order of Napoleon,1 without the observation of any of the forms of law, and shot at Vincennes on the night of March 20-21. On the 18th of May the tribunate and senate proclaimed the Consul Bonaparte,

1804-1814 (15) Napoleon I., Hereditary Emperor of the French.

The succession was in the male line, the emperor having the privilege of adopting the children of his brothers, in default of which and of direct issue, the crown was to go to Joseph and Louis Bonaparte. The election was ratified by a popular election, by means of lists to which the people signed their names (3,572,329 to 2,569). The emperor was consecrated at Paris by Pius VII. (Dec. 2), placing the crown upon his own head. (Imitation of Pepin and especially of

1 That no misunderstandings took place, as is asserted by Thiers and others, throughout the whole shameful proceeding, that Napoleon I. afterwards endeavored in all ways to conceal the truth, and that the guilt of this premeditated murder rests mainly upon himself, has been proved by Lanfrey, Histoire de Napoleon I. iii. 128, foll.