1808-1814. War between Napoleon and Great Britain in Spain and Portugal. ("Peninsula War.") The English landed in Portugal and forced Junot to surrender Cintra, after which he was obliged to evacuate the country_(Sir Arthur Wellesley). The French were soon driven back to the Ebro. Napoleon, secured against Austria by a closer alliance with the emperor Alexander, since the assembly of princes at Erfurt, where four kings, thirty-four princes, and other German rulers who had done him homage, hastened in person to Spain with 250,000 men, advanced to Madrid, and with Soult drove the English from Spain (battle of Corunna Jan. 16, 1809. Death of Sir John Moore). After the departure of Napoleon hostilities continued in Spain. Guerrilla warfare. The English returned. Heroic defense of Saragossa (Palafox), which surrendered in Feb. 1809. The English general, Sir Arthur Wellesley (b. 1769; officer in East India 1797-1805; M. P. 1806; viscount Wellington, 1809; duke of Wellington, 1814; prime minister, 1827-1830; d. 1852, Sept. 18), after his victory over Joseph at Talavera, July 28, 1809, was created viscount Wellington, and made commander-in-chief of all English troops in the Spanish peninsula. Soult, duke of Dalmatia, at first victorious against the Spanish and Portuguese, was obliged to evacuate Oporto again.

In Prussia, meanwhile, the state was reorganized after the dismissal of Beymes and Zastrow, by Charles, baron of and in Stein (b. 1757 at Nassau; since 1780, in Prussian civil service; 1796 overpresident of the chamber of Westphalia; 1804 minister of finance, d. 1831), and Hardenberg. Regulations for the cities, liberation of industry, abolition of hereditary serfdom, reformation of the administration of the public finances. Reorganization of the army on the basis of universal military service, by Gneisenau, Grolman, Boyen, Clausewitz, Scharnhorst (b. 1756, in Hanover, son of a peasant, officer in the service of Hanover, 1801 lieutenant-colonel in Prussia, taken prisoner at Ratkau with Blücher, major-general at Eylau; d. 1813). Foundation of the university at Berlin (1810), by Humboldt, Altenstein, Niebuhr, Schleiermacher. Fichte's addresses to the German nation. Tugendbund. Gymnastics, Jahn. E. M. Arndt. Preparations for the liberation of Germany and Europe from the French yoke. Futile attempt of Austria to accomplish this liberation alone, by making use of Napoleon's entanglement in the Spanish war.

1808, July-Nov. English expedition to Walcheren (p. 537). 1809. (Fifth) War with Austria.

Archduke Charles, commander of the Austrian army of Bavaria, and archduke John, commander of the Austrian forces which were sent to Italy, summoned the German people to take part in the struggle against the French supremacy. Tyrol alone heeded the summons, and took up arms (Andreas Hofer, Speckbacher).

Napoleon engaged archduke Charles in Bavaria, with German Apr. 19-23. troops, drove him over the Danube to Bohemia, after

five days' fighting at Abensberg, Landshut, Eckmühl and ReMay 11. gensburg, and captured Vienna for the second time. Napoleon crossed the island of Lobau, to the left bank of the Danube, where in the bloody

1809, May 21-22. Battle at Aspern and Essling

(on the Marchfeld), he was, for the first time, defeated by archduke Charles, and (Lannes †) forced to recross the Danube (Massena), where he united with the viceroy Eugene, who had pursued archduke John from northern Italy to Hungary and defeated him at Raab. With 180,000 men Napoleon crossed the Danube anew, defeated archduke Charles in the murderous

1809, July 5-6. Battle of Wagram,

and pursued him toward Moravia. Truce of Znaim.

Oct. 14. Peace of Vienna

between France and Austria, signed in the palace at Schönbrunn.

1. Austria ceded a territory of 32,000 square miles, containing 31 million inhabitants, viz.: a. Salzburg and Berchtesgaden, the Innviertel, and half of the Hausrückviertel to Bavaria; b. West Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw; c. one district in East Gallicia (Tarnopol) to Russia; d. the lands beyond the Save, the circle of Villach, Istria, Hungarian Dalmatia, and Ragusa to the emperor Napoleon, who created from these cessions and the Ionian Islands, which Russia had surrendered to him in 1807, the new state of the Illyrian provinces under Marmont, duke of Ragusa, as governor. 2. Austria joined the continental system, and broke off all connection with England.

The Tyrolese, left to themselves, continued the war with heroic courage, but were in the end subdued. Hofer captured and shot by the French at Mantua (1810). Southern Tyrol annexed to the kingdom of Italy.

Bold attempt of Schill, a Prussian major, to precipitate the war of liberation. With 600 hussars he left Berlin in the spring of 1809, and summoned the people of Germany to take up arms. The news

of Napoleon's victories on the Danube frustrated the scheme. Schill fell fighting bravely at Stralsund (May 31). Eleven of his officers were court-martialed and shot in Wesel, the captured soldiers were condemned to hard labor by order of Napoleon, carried to France, and after a half year's imprisonment in the bagnio, or prison for galleyslaves, enrolled among the French coast guards. 1809. Bold expedition of the duke of Brunswick across northern Germany. He succeeded in transporting himself and the "Black Legion" to England.

Gustavus IV., of Sweden, a bitter opponent of the Revolution and of Napoleon, but ignorant of the true interests of his country, had been since 1808 involved in war with Russia, which had conquered Finland. He fell at last by a military revolution, the victim of his obstinacy. The capital, Stockholm, being threatened by the passage of the Russians under Barclay de Tolly over the frozen gulf of Bothnia, by the capture of Tornea and that of the islands of Aland, a mutiny broke out in the Swedish army. The king was arrested on March 13, 1809, by generals Klingspor and Adlerkreuz, obliged to abdicate, and dismissed from the kingdom with his family. The crown was given to the uncle of the king, Charles XIII. (1809-1818), passing over his

son. In the peace of Friedrichsham with Russia, Sept. 17, 1809, Sweden surrendered to Russia the principality of Finland as far as the river Torneå, together with the islands of Aland. By the mediation of Russia Sweden concluded the peace of Paris with France, Jan. 6, 1810, whereby Sweden joined the continental system and obtained the restoration of Swedish Pomerania. After the sudden death of prince Christian August of Holstein-Augustenburg, whom Charles XIII. had adopted and appointed heir to the throne, the French marshal Bernadotte (prince of Pontecorvo) was elected crown prince of Sweden.

Rome had been occupied by the French in 1808. Pope Pius VII. steadfastly refusing to enter into an offensive and defensive alliance with France, and to close his seaports against England, Napoleon, after the infliction of unheard-of violence for a year, proclaimed from Schönbrunn, May, 1809, that the papal states and the city of Rome were incorporated with France. Pius VII. excommunicated Napoleon in June, whereupon he was arrested and taken over Mt. Cenis to Grenoble and thence to Savona. As he still refused to yield to Napoleon's demands, Pius VII. was placed on prisoner's allowance, and lived for three years almost entirely upon alms (1812 taken to Fontainebleau.)

In Turkey, after the deposition of Selim III., war broke out again with Russia (1809-1812). After the bloody battle at Rustchuck, the Russians retired across the Danube, and the Turkish army which pursued them was captured (1811).

1812, May 28. Peace of Bucharest: the Pruth was made the boundary between Russia and Turkey.

1810, April. Napoleon, divorced from Josephine, married Maria Louisa, daughter of Francis I. of Austria. Abdication and flight (July) of Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, who had refused to ruin his country by joining the continental system. Annexation of Holland, as the "alluvial deposit of French rivers," to the French empire. Annexation of the canton of Wallis, and soon after of Oldenburg, a large part of the kingdom of Westphalia, the_grand duchy of Berg, East Friesland, the Hanseatic cities, so that the French empire, which now comprised 130 departments, extended on the east as far as the Trave.

In Spain strenuous exertions against Napoleon; French, Italian, and Polish troops, along with those of the confederacy of the Rhine, overran the peninsula. Conquest of Andalusia by Victor and Mortier. Unsuccessful siege of Cadiz, whither the Central Junto had fled from Seville. A special session of the Cortes called at Cadiz assumed the sovereignty and drew up a constitution (completed 1812).

Retreat
Winter

In Portugal struggle between Wellington and Massena. Siege and capture of Ciudad Rodrigo by the latter (July 10, 1810). of Wellington to the lines of Torres Vedras (Oct. 9). quarters. 1811, March; masterly retreat of Massena. Siege of Almeida and Badajoz by the English. Defeat and retreat of Massena from Portugal. Soult, hastening to the relief of Badajoz, was defeated in the bloody

1811, May 16.

Battle of Albuera. The English returned to Portugal. 1812, capture of Ciudad Rodrigo (Jan. 19) and Badajoz (April 6).

1812, July 22. Battle of Salamanca; victory of Wellington. Capture of Madrid. Loss of southern Spain to the French. 1811, March. Birth of a son to Napoleon, who received the pompous title of king of Rome.

Napoleon I. at the summit of his power. In the naval warfare and in the colonies France, like Holland, had met nothing but losses. Cayenne, Martinique, Senegal, St. Domingo, were lost in 1809. Guadeloupe, Isle Bourbon, and Isle de France in 1810 ; Java (with Batavia)

1811.

1812-1814. War between England and the United States of North America in consequence of commercial dissensions concluded by the treaty of Ghent, Dec. 24, 1814 (p. 551).

1812. (Sixth) War with Russia.

Cause: Napoleon's claim to rule the continent of Europe. The refusal of Russia to carry out strictly the absurd continental system, which Napoleon himself evaded by salable licenses, and which had ruined Russian commerce, roused the anger of the tyrant. The addition of west Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw by the peace of Vienna, had caused Alexander anxiety lest the restoration of Poland should be contemplated; the deposition of the duke of Oldenburg, his near relative, offended him deeply.

Alliance of Napoleon with Austria, which furnished 30,000 men for the Russian expedition, and Prussia, from which he obtained 20,000 men. Denmark, favored by its position, succeeded in maintaining neutrality during the war with Russia. Sweden (Bernadotte), which had been forced by the violent reproaches of Napoleon concerning disregard of the continental system to declare war upon England (1810), seized the opportunity of the Russian war, to shake off her dependence upon France, and open for herself the prospect of obtaining Norway, as a recompense for Finland. Occupation of Swedish Pomerania and Rügen by the French, Jan. 1812. Treaty of St. Petersburg between Sweden and Russia, April: Russia promised Sweden the annexation of Norway, with indemnification for Denmark; Sweden promised Russia to make a diversion in northern Germany in union with a Russian auxiliary force.

England concluded peace with Russia and Sweden at Örebro (June).

The French army of invasion included Frenchmen, Italians, Swiss, Dutch, Poles, and contingents from all the German princes of the corfederacy of the Rhine, in fact, the smaller part only of the army was French. The total number, according to Thiers, was 420,000 men, but reinforcements afterwards swelled it to 553,000. The Austrians, under Schwarzenberg, on the right wing, and Prussians, under York, on the left wing, formed separate armies, the latter being under the command of Macdonald. 1812, June. Passage of the Niemen by the great army; occupation of Wilna. Poland was not restored. The Russians under Barclay de Tolly retreated. The main army reached Smolensk without a battle, though suffering from skirmishes and lack of provisions, while the Prussians besieged Riga, and the Austrians penetrated Volhy

nia. Storm and destruction of Smolensk (Aug. 17, 18). The Russian general Kutusoff, obtaining the command in chief, fought the bloody 1812, Sept. 7. Battle at Borodino and Moshaisk

on the Moskowa, in which both parties suffered enormous losses (French, 32,000; Russian, 47,000), but the Russians were forced to withdraw. Retreat in admirable order through Sept. 14. Moscow. Occupation of the city, which the inhabitants had abandoned, by the French, whose main army had already shrunk to 95,000 men.1 Napoleon in the Kremlin. Sept. 16-19. Burning of Moscow (Rostopschin).

Sack of the city in the midst of ashes and ruins. Napoleon proffered a truce, which the Russians rejected by an answer whose delivery was purposely delayed. After remaining five weeks in Moscow, Napoleon commenced his

at first in a southwesterly direction, afterwards towards Smolensk. The march was disturbed by the Russian main army under Kutusoff, and by countless swarms of Cossacks. Desperate contest of separate corps of the army at Jaroslavez, Oct. 24, and Vjazma, Nov. 3.

Nov. 6. Commencement of the cold weather. Terrible suffering from hunger and frost. Continuous engagements, especially at Krasnoy (Ney, "the bravest of the brave"), and Borissoff.

Nov. 26-28. Terrible passage of the Berezina.

Ney and Oudinot, with 8,500 men, forced a passage against 25,000. From this point, the disorganization of the remaining fragments of the army was complete, and the retreat became a wild flight. Dec. 3, Bulletin (No. 29), of Malodeczno. Napoleon left the army and hastened to Paris where he arrived Dec. 18. The army continued its retreat pursued by the Russians until Dec. 13, when the remaining troops (100,000), crossed the Niemen. The Russians made 100,000 prisoners according to their reports.

In any case this expedition cost the lives of at least 300,000 able-bodied young men on the side of the French and their allies.

Dec. 30. York concluded a treaty of neutrality with the Russian general Diebitch, in the mill of Poscherun near Tauroggen. 1813 and 1814. The Great War of Liberation

of the allies against Napoleon.

1813, Feb. 3. Appeal of Frederic William III. issued from Breslau, directing the formation of volunteer corps, whereupon all the young men capable of service flew to arms. Feb. 28. Alliance of Kalish

between Russia and Prussia :

1. Offensive and defensive alliance, enumeration of the auxil

1 Cf. v. Toll, Denkwürdigkeiten.