under heavy fighting; the Prussians, after an unsuccessful cannonade at Missunde, crossed the Schlei at Arnis. The Danish commander De Meza surrendered the Danewerk Feb. 5, 6. He was replaced by general Gerlach. The Austrians under Gablenz undertook to clear North Schleswig of the Danes. (Brilliant engagement of the Austrian advance at Oversee, Feb. 6.) The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles undertook the difficult operation against the entrenchments of Düppel, which had been transformed to a veritable fortress. 1864. Skirmishes and preliminary operations until the arrival of the Feb. 22-March 12. siege artillery.

March 15-April 18. Actual siege of the entrenchments of Düppel. April 18. Brilliant storming of Düppel by the Prussians. Capture of all the entrenchments. The Danes retreated to Alsen, evacuating the fortress of Fredericia. A part of Jütland occupied by the allies, as a ransom.

May 12-June 26. Truce, and meanwhile peace conference at London.

Prussia and Austria seceded from the London Protocol. As no agreement could be reached either in regard to a personal union of the duchies with the crown of Denmark (Beust objecting as representative of the confederation), or in regard to the division of Schleswig according to nationality, the war broke out anew. The Prussians under prince Frederic Charles (who had received the chief command) accomplished the

June 28-29. Passage to the island of Alsen, defeated the Danes at all points, and took a large number of prisoners. All Jütland occupied by the allies.

At sea a Prussian squadron under Jachmarn had fought successfully at Jasmund, March 17, while an Austro-Prussian fleet under Tegethoff had won a victory at Heligoland, and after the truce had captured the islands off Friesland. These misfortunes induced Christian IX. to make direct applications for peace, which led to the 1864, Oct. 30. Peace of Vienna.

1. The king of Denmark renounced all his rights to the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg in favor of the emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. 2. He agreed to recognize whatever disposition the monarchs should make of these three states.

Upon the motion of the two great powers, the execution against Holstein was declared by the confederation to be completed; the troops of the confederation (Hanoverians and Saxons) evacuated the country. Prussia and Austria established a common government in the city of Schleswig.

While the question of the succession was zealously discussed in the diet of the confederation, in diplomatic negotiations, and in the press, and the cause of the hereditary prince was agitated in both duchies, the Austrian and Prussian commissioners became involved in a wretched conflict. In order to put an end to this, the final decision in regard to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein was postponed and the

1865. Treaty of Gastein was concluded between Prussia and AusAug. 14.

tria.

1. Both powers retained the sovereignty of both duchies, in common; Austria assuming the provisional administration of Holstein, Prussia that of Schleswig.

2. Rendsburg to be a fortress of the confederation, Kiel a harbor of the confederation; the use of this harbor was to be in common, but Prussia received the chief command there; a military road, a telegraph and postal line through Holstein were guaranteed to Prussia.

3. The emperor of Austria surrendered all his rights to the duchy of Lauenburg to the king of Prussia for two and a half million rix dollars.

In execution of this treaty Prussia occupied the duchy of Schleswig (governor, v. Manteuffel) and Austria the duchy of Holstein (governor, v. Gablenz). The duchy of Lauenburg, after the consent of the estates had been obtained, was joined in personal union to the crown of Prussia.

Deep dissatisfaction with this treaty in the rest of Germany. Between the two great powers new disputes soon broke out. Austria, being determined not to agree, under any circumstances, to a real increase of Prussian power, returned to the attitude of the confederation upon this point, and entered into agreement with the middle states of Germany. Prussia, regarding the decision of the German question by war as unavoidable, entered into negotiations with Italy. 1866. The Austro-Prussian War.1

June 16-July 22. The war proper lasted one month: June 22 to (Aug. 23). July 22.

Allies of Prussia: the smaller North German states and Italy.

Allies of Austria: Bavaria, Würtemberg, Saxony, Hanover, Baden, the two Hesses.

Cause of the war: the desire of the German people for greater unity, and the impossibility of reaching a re-organization of Germany with a strong central government as long as two great powers confronted one another in the German confederation, one having a population largely non-Germanic, with non-Germanic interests.

Special cause: the quarrel about the future of the North Albingian duchies. Austria wished that the crown prince of Augustenburg should be recognized as duke of Schleswig-Holstein, and join the confederation as a sovereign prince. Prussia demanded (note of Feb. 22, 1865) that in case a new small state, Schleswig-Holstein, was created: 1. its whole military force should become an integral part of the Prussian army and fleet, and its postal and telegraph systems be united with those of Prussia; 2. that several important military posts (Friedrichsort, Sonderburg, etc.) should be given to Prussia, to enable her to undertake the necessary protection of the new state against Denmark.

Reason for the participation of Italy in the war: the favorable opportunity of acquiring Venice.

1 Der Feldzug von 1866 in Deutschland (by the Prussian General Staff), and Oesterreichs Kampf im Jahre 1866 (by the Austrian General Staff).

Arming of the three powers, each claiming to be driven to that step by the preparations of its opponent.

The chief command of the Austrian armies in Bohemia and Moravia (northern army) given to general Benedek (240,000 men), who made his headquarters at Olmütz. The command of the army in Venice (southern army) given to archduke Albert.

Prussia placed five armies in the field :

1. First army in Lusatia (93,000) under prince Frederic Charles. 2. Second (Silesian) army (115,000) under the crown prince, Frederic William.

3. The army of the Elbe (46,000) in Thuringia under general Herwarth von Bittenfeld.

4. The reserve army at Berlin under general v. Mülbe (24,000). 5. The army of the Main not formed until later, at first divided into three corps, Vogel v. Falckenstein at Minden, Manteuffel at Schleswig, Beyer at Wetzlar (in all 48,000 men). Commander-in-chief of

all forces, king William I.; chief of the great general staff, general v. Moltke.

The mediation of France, England, and Russia, proffered at Frankfort, May 27, 28, was frustrated by the demand of Austria that at any peace conference which might be held there should be no reference to an alteration of boundaries.

The convocation of the Holstein assembly of estates (June 2) by the Austrian governor, v. Gablenz, led to an open rupture. Prussia declared that the treaty of Gastein was broken, and general v. Manteuffel entered Holstein (June 7); v. Gablenz, under protest, retreated to Altona with the Austrian brigade, and thence to Hanoverian territory.

On the motion of Austria, which declared the peace of the confederation broken by the action of Prussia in Holstein,

1866. The diet decreed the mobilization of the whole army of June 14. the confederation, with exception of the three Prussian corps. Secession of Prussia, and dissolution of the German confederation.

June 15. Prussia called upon Saxony, Hanover, and Hesse to disregard the resolve of the confederacy, to replace their troops upon a peace footing, and join a new confederation under the lead of Prussia. Upon the rejection of these demands, the Prussians invaded Hanover and Electoral Hesse. King George retreated to the south; the elector, Frederic William, was carried to Stettin a prisThe Prussians invaded Saxony (Herwarth); the Saxon army, king, and government retreating to Bohemia. Dresden occupied (June 18); all Saxony, excepting Königstein, in the hands of the Prussians (June 20).

oner.

Prussia resolved upon an offensive war. The occupation of Saxony opened the way for a strategic march of the army of the Elbe and the first army along the line of Bautzen-Dresden. The concentration of the Austrian power about Olmütz threatened the province of Silesia, but the Austrian army not being completely ready, the Prussians determined to forestall the enemy by an invasion of Bohemia.

A. Principal Scene of War in Bohemia.

June 22-25. Prussian invasion of Bohemia.

June 26, 27. Prussian victories (under prince Frederic Carl and the crown prince) at Hühnerwasser, Nachod (June 27); victory of the Austrians at Trautenau (June 27).

June 28. Prince Frederic Charles at Münchengrätz forced back the Austrians and Saxons.

Meantime the Silesian army defeated v. Gablentz at Soor (June 28), and the crown prince occupied Trautenau. Prussian victories of Skalitz (June 28, heavy losses) and Gitschin (June 29). Capture of Königinhof.

The engagement at Schweinschädel completed the purposed approach of the two Prussian armies to one another. They were purposely not united, but kept asunder in a manner "which, being without danger strategically considered, secured great tactical advantages." Hitherto the chief movements of both armies had been directed by telegraph from Berlin.

June 30. King William I. and general Von Moltke, chief of the general staff, left Berlin for the seat of war.

On July 2 it was decided to attack the Austrians with the whole force on the next day, they being stationed behind the Bistritz brook, with the fortress of Königgrätz and the Elbe in their rear. 1866. July 3. Battle of Königrätz or Sadowa.

The first Prussian army, united with that of the Elbe (king William I., prince Frederic Charles, v. Herwarth), had a severe contest with the northern army of Austria, in an advantageous position, under Benedek; in the afternoon the second (Silesian army), under the crown prince, gained the flank and rear of the Austrians, after a fatiguing march, and in combination with the first army secured the complete victory of the Prussians. Pursuit was stopped by the Elbe and by the exhaustion of the troops. Retreat of the Austrians toward Olmütz.

Francis Joseph appealed to the mediation of France, and ceded Venetia to Napoleon III., but the truce desired by France was rejected by Prussia and Italy. Two thirds of the Austrian southern army was transferred to the northern seat of war.

Occupation of Prague by the Prussians (July 10), of Brünn (July 12). March of the main Prussian army upon Vienna.

Benedek advanced to the defence of the capital, but was cut off from the direct way by the rapid advance of prince Frederic Charles, and forced to attempt the circuitous route by way of the Little Carpathians. A Prussian corps invaded Hungary.

July 22. The engagement of Blumenau was broken off by the announcement of the conclusion of a truce for five days, which was converted into

July 26.

The truce of Nikolsburg, after the preliminaries of peace had been signed under French mediation (p. 510).

B. Western Seat of War.

The entire army of the confederation was under the command of prince Charles of Bavaria.

1866. Victory of 16,000 Hanoverians over 8,000 Prussians and June 27. troops of Coburg-Gotha, at Langensalza; the junction of the Hanoverians with their southern allies was, however, prevented.

June 29. Capitulation of the Hanoverians at Lagensalza. July 4-14. Victories of the Prussians at Dermbach (July 4), and in five battles on the Frankish Saale, over the south German troops (Hammelburg, Kissingen, Friedrichshall, Hausen, Waldaschach) July 10, thus forcing the passage of the river. July 14. Engagement at Aschaffenburg; victory over the united Hessian, Austrian, and Darmstadt troops. Occupation of Frankfort (July 16) and Darmstadt (July 17). Occupation of Würzburg and Nuremberg.

Aug. 2. Truce.

1866.

C. Seat of War in Italy.

Battle of Custozza; victory of the Austrians (archduke June 24. Albert) over the Italians (king Victor Emmanuel). The Italian army retreated across the Mincio, but after the Austrian army was transferred, in large part, to the seat of war in the north, the Italians again advanced.

July 20. Naval victory of the Austrians (Tegethoff) at Lissa over the Italians (Persano).

1866. Peace of Prague

Aug. 23. between Prussia and Austria.

1. The emperor of Austria recognized the dissolution of the German confederation, and consented to a reorganization of Germany without Austria, and agreed to the annexations contemplated by Prussia. A special condition secured Saxony (as a member of the new north German confederation) from an alteration of her boundary. 2. Austria transferred to Prussia her rights in Schleswig-Holstein, with the reservation that the northern districts of Schleswig should be reunited with Denmark, should the inhabitants express a desire for such reunion by a free popular vote (rescinded, 1878). 3. Austria paid twenty million rix dollars ($15,000,000) for the costs of the war. 4. At the request of Prussia Venice was ceded to Italy.

Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, Nassau, and the free city of Frankfort were definitively incorporated with Prussia, so that by this successful war the extent of the monarchy was increased from 111,000 square miles (over nineteen million inhabitants) to 140,000 square miles (twenty-three and a half million inhabitants). Peace between Prussia and Würtemberg (Aug. 13), Baden (Aug. 17), Bavaria (Aug. 22), Hesse (Sept. 3), Saxony (Oct. 21).

The proposed cessions of territory in the southern states were in the main given up, inasmuch as Napoleon III. showed a desire for a rectification of boundaries as regarded Germany; conclusion of an offensive and defensive alliance between Prussia and the southern states. Reciprocal guarantee of territorial integrity. The southern states placed their entire military force under the command of the king of Prussia in the event of war. The demand of Napoleon III. rejected,