Oct. 3. between Austria and Italy. Austria recognized the kingdom of Italy, with which Venice was united. Prussia having concluded an alliance with the North German states in August, 1866, elections for a North German diet were prescribed on a basis of manhood and direct suffrage. 1867. First diet of the North German Confederation. Feb. 24. After a short discussion the diet agreed with the governments upon a constitution for the North German Confederation presidency of the league united with the crown of Prussia, which represented the confederation in its international relations, declared war, concluded peace and treaties, and accredited ambassadors in its name. The governments were represented in the council of the confederation (Bundesrath), in which Prussia had seventeen votes, and the other twenty-one members twenty-six votes altogether. Imperial diet (Reichstag) originating from direct manhood suffrage. Centralized military system, under the command of the king of Prussia. Universal compulsory military service. customs, postal, and telegraph service. Count Bismarck, chancellor of the confederation. United 1867. In Austria a reorganization of the state in a liberal sense was undertaken, in consequence of the unsuccessful war. The former Saxon minister, von Beust, president of the ministry, afterwards (until 1871) chancellor of the empire. Reconciliation with Hungary. Restoration of the Hungarian constitution. Solemn coronation of the emperor Francis Joseph in Pesth as king of Hungary. Reunion of the dependent lands (Croatia, Transylvania) with Hungary. Establishment of a liberal constitution in that part of the monarchy this side of the Leith (Cisleithania). (The constitution of 1861, p. 504, was suspended in 1865.) Germano-Slavonic Reichstag. 1867. Luxemburg question. Napoleon III. wished to secretly indemnify the French nation for the increased power of Prussia by a new annexation. His negotiations with the king of Holland in regard to the purchase of the grand duchy of Luxemburg were broken off in consequence of the objection of Prussia, whereupon Napoleon III. demanded that the Prussian garrison of Luxemburg should evacuate the fortress. Under the excitement which the dispute aroused in Germany and France, the outbreak of war seemed unavoidable, when the 1867. London Conference (Italy recognized as the sixth great May 7-11. power) succeeded in establishing the following agree ments: 1. The neutrality of the grand duchy was guaranteed by the great powers in common. 2. The Prussian garrison evacuated Luxemburg, and the fortifications were razed. 1867. Italian volunteers, with the tacit favor of the Italian governSept.-Nov. ment, made an attack upon the papal territory. Napo leon III. declared the former treaty (p. 503) broken, and sent assistance to the Pope. The free troops were defeated at Mentana. Rome received a new French garrison. 1868, April. First customs parliament in Germany. 1868. Outbreak of the Spanish Revolution in Cadiz. The royalSept. ist troops under Novaliches were defeated by the insurgent troops under Serrano at Alcolea. Queen Isabella fled to France; the whole country declared in favor of the revolution. Provisional government. The Bourbons deposed from the throne. Summons of a constitutional cortes. The majority of the cortes established, in spite of the opposition of the numerous republican members, a new constitutional monarchy. Serrano provisional regent. After many negotiations with foreign princes, conducted by Prim (murdered 1870), without result, the prince of Hohenzollern (1870, p. 513) accepted the Spanish crown. After his withdrawal, during the FrancoPrussian war, the duke of Aosta, the second son of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, was elected by the cortes, and ascended the throne as 1870-1873. Amadeus I., king of Spain. 1869. In France general election for the corps législatif; for the first time during the second empire, strong manifestation of party spirit, and a large number of votes cast. The departments, especially the country population, gave the government a good majority, though weaker than formerly. In Paris and Lyons victory of the ultra radical party, and election of candidates opposed to the government and the dynasty. 1869, Nov. 16. Formal opening of the Suez Canal, which was completed by the indomitable perseverance of its projector, the Frenchman, Ferdinand de Lesseps. 1869, Dec. 8. Opening of the Vatican Council. Proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility July 18, 1870, by a vote of 547 to 2. Adjournment of the council, Oct. 20, 1870. Vacillating and indecisive conduct of the emperor Napoleon III. in face of the daily increasing dissatisfaction in the country with the arbitrary character of the government, which was no longer offset by any brilliant achievements outside. Dismissal of the "vice emperor Rouher (July). Formation of a new cabinet, composed of similar reactionary elements; then, as the different factions of the opposition (Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, Gambetta, Rochefort) grew more bold, formation of the 1870, Jan. Ministry of Ollivier from the ranks of the moderate liberals. Dismissal of the prefect of the Seine, Hausmann. The death of a radical journalist at the hands of Pierre Bonaparte, a cousin of the emperor (self-defence or murder?), produced an extraordinary excitement in Paris. Riots. Condemnation and imprisonment of Rochefort, in consequence of his incendiary newspaper articles. New riots. Arrest of many radicals. Prince Pierre Bonaparte declared not guilty by the court in Tours. April. A new liberal constitution, introduced by the government, was accepted by a decree of the senate, whereupon a vote of confidence was demanded from the people by a "plebiscite" (May), which resulted, thanks to the application of well-known methods, in a majority of more than seven million yeas to one and a half million nays, the latter being cast in Paris and the larger cities. In the army and the fleet more than 50,000 voted "no." In view of this grave dissatisfaction in the army, and of the constant agitation of the parties, which were in no wise quieted by the liberal concessions which had been made, a diversion, to be induced by involving the country in foreign disputes, such as had often been tried in France, seemed to be the best means of extrication. To the adoption of this means the emperor, who was anxious for the future of his dynasty, was more and more strongly urged by his intimate councillors (the empress, marshal Lebœuf, duke of Gramont, minister of foreign affairs). 1870, July 19-1871, March 3. Franco-Prussian War.1 General Causes : 1. The idea entertained by a great part of the French nation, and kept alive by historians, poets, and the daily press, of the reconquest of the left bank of the Rhine (les frontières naturelles 2). 2. The French, not understanding the long struggle of the German nation for political unity, saw in the consummation of this union only a forcible aggrandizement of Prussia, and in the victory of the latter state over Austria an unpermissible encroachment upon their own military fame. Special causes: 1. The internal troubles of the government of Napoleon III. (p. 512). 2. The rejection of the "compensation" demanded, since 1866, from the cabinet of Berlin, for the growth of Prussia in extent and population. 3. News of the approaching introduction of an improved weapon for the north German infantry, which threatened to put in question the superiority of the French chassepot. Immediate cause: The election of the prince of Hohenzollern to the throne of Spain (512), which was represented in Paris as a Prussian intrigue endangering the safety of France. The request made by the French ambassador Benedetti in Ems of king William I. in person, that he should forbid the prince of Hohenzollern to accept the Spanish crown, was refused. After the voluntary withdrawal of the prince, the French government looked to the king of Prussia for a distinct announcement "that he would never again permit the candidacy of the prince for the Spanish crown." King William refused to discuss the matter, and referred Benedetti to the regular method of communication through the ministry at Berlin. This and the telegraphic announcement of the proceeding was represented by the duke of Gramont as an insult to France. Tremendous excitement in Paris, artificially fermented (cries of "à Berlin!"). In the corps législatif (July 15), opposition of a small minority (Thiers: "because France is not prepared for war") to the declaration of war, which the imperial government declared was forced upon them by Prussia ("La France accepte la guerre que la Prusse lui offre "). 1 Der deutsch-franz. Krieg 1870-71, edited by the division of the Prussian General Staff on military history. Niemann, Der franz. Feldzug von 1870-71, 2 vols. An English rendering of the French view of the war will be found in Jerrold's Life of Napoleon III., vol. iv. 2 The first use of this idea, which can be established, was by king Charles VII., 1444. In Germany quiet but decided attitude of the government and the people. William I. on his return to Berlin enthusiastically received (July 15). The same evening mobilization of the north German army and convention of the Reichstag ordered. July 19. Delivery of the French declaration of war. Opening of the north German Reichstag, which unanimously voted a war credit (July 23). South Germany understood that the French attack, although apparently directed against Prussia alone, was in reality an attack upon the German nation, and that Napoleon's purpose was the conquest of German territory and the establishment of a new confederation of the Rhine. The patriotic attitude of Louis II. of Bavaria, who on July 16 had declared that the case of war contemplated in the confederation was at hand, and had ordered the mobilization of the Bavarian army, had a decisive influence upon Würtemberg. Patriotic attitude of Baden. The French cabinet, which had counted on the neutrality of south Germany, at the least, undeceived. Hence a new military plan. The grand army was to be divided into three groups, the two former (250,000) of which were to force neutrality upon the south Germans, and hasten the hoped-for alliance with Austria and Italy. This should be followed by an attack upon the north German army, while expeditions to the coasts of the German ocean should instigate an uprising in Hanover and secure the assistance of Denmark. In reality the strategic advance of the French army took place as follows :— 1. Corps under marshal MacMahon, at Strasburg. 2. Corps under general De Failly at Bitsch. 3. Corps under Marshal Bazaine at Metz. 4. Corps under general Ladmirault at Thionville (Diedenhofen). The corps of marshal Canrobert at Châlons, of general F. Douay at Belfort, and the Garde under general Bourbaki at Nancy formed the reserve (320,000). Commander-in-chief, Napoleon III.; chief of the general staff, marshal Lebœuf. It appearing that most of the corps were not in readiness for war the plan of attack was exchanged for a defensive plan. The German forces moved in three great armies. I. Army, right wing, Steinmetz at Coblentz (60,000). II. Army, centre, prince Frederic Charles, Mainz (131,000, with the reserve 194,000). III. Army, left wing, crown prince Frederic William at Mannheim (130,000). The total strength of the north German army 750,000 (of which 198,000 were Landwehr); of the south German 100,000. Commanderin-chief, king William I.; chief of the general staff, general Von Moltke. The strategic movement of the German armies was at first planned for defense simply, but as the enemy's delay gave a chance for an attack an advance of all three armies towards the boundary, from Trier to Landau, began in the latter part of July. Before the Germans could take the offensive the French made an |