1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin de liste; minority representation in districts returning five or more deputies.

Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established in the university of Prague.

Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive measures, undaunted activity of the nihilists.

March 6. Servia made a kingdom; prince Milan king as Milan I. March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia by the Austrians.

Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). Approaching end of the Kulturkampf.

April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoff, minister of foreign affairs in Russia; he was succeeded by De Giers; this change, regarded as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehensions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives of Skobeleff in Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, † July 7). May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. (Begun 1872, tunnel 94 miles long.)

June 2. Death of Giuseppi Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice; conspirator in 1833; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835; defense of Rome, 1849; in North America, 1854; service against Austria, 1859, 1860; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 1867; participation in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870, 1871; member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875).

Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in the German Reichstag.

1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. Sept. Anti-Jewish riots, especially at Pressburg (Sept. 27–30). Sept.-Nov. New elections in Norway. Return of an increased radical majority.

§ 3. FRANCE.
1815-x.

1814 (1815)-1824. Louis XVIII.

First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814: hereditary monarchy; two chambers (peers nominated by the king, lower house elected by the people); freedom of the press; religious liberty; responsible ministers; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of Napoleon.

1815, July 8. Second restoration. 1815, Sept. 25-1818, Dec. 29. Ministry of the duke of Richelieu. Nov. 20. Second peace of Paris (p. 485).

An ultra-royalist chamber (chambre introuvable; compare the "Cavalier parliament of Charles II. of England, p. 378). La terreur blanche. Parties: court (Richelieu), advocating return to the old monarchy; legitimists (Decazes); doctrinaires (Guizot), advocates of constitutional monarchy with strong administration; liberals (independents, Périer, Lafayette); Bonapartists; republicans. Gravitation towards a monarchy resting on the middle classes (bourgeoisie).

Ministry of Dessoles-Decazes (1818, Dec. 29-1819, Nov.); of Decazes (1819, Nov. 10-1820, Feb.).

1820, Feb. 13. Murder of the duke of Berry, the second nephew of Louis XVIII., by Louvel. Ultra-royalist ministry. Laws restricting freedom of the press and of elections.

Sept. 29. Birth of the duke of Bordeaux, posthumous son of the duke of Berry; "Henry V. ;" Europe's child." Presenta

66

tion of the castle of Chambord by national subscription.

1821, May 5. Death of Napoleon I. at St. Helena.

1821, Dec. 13-1828, Jan. 4. Ministry of Villèle (ultra-royalist). 1823. French intervention in Spain; capture of Madrid and Cadiz ; liberation of Ferdinand VII., by the duke of Angoulême. Cruel reaction. Numerous executions (Riego). Septennial election law (violation of the charter). New chamber of ultra-royalists (chambre retrouvée, 1824).

1824, Sept. 16. Death of Louis XVIII.

1824-1830. Charles X.

1825, March. Grant of a milliard ($200,000,000) to returned refugees as compensation for their confiscated estates.1

Growth of the liberal party: Collaud, Constant, Périer, Broglie,
Chateaubriand. Outcry against the Jesuits.

1827, April 30. National guard disbanded.

1828, Jan. Fall of the Villele ministry in consequence of the return of a liberal majority at the election.

1828, Jan. 4-1829, Aug. 8. Martignac ministry ("too liberal for the royalists, too reactionary for the liberals").

1829, Aug.-1830, July. Polignac ministry; reactionary, ultra-royalist. "No more concessions!"

1830, March 18. Address of the 221, in reply to the king's speech; vote of want of confidence. Dissolution May 16.

July 5. Capture of Algiers by the French.

Reasons for the expedition: 1. An insult offered the French ambassadors by the Dey, Husseyn. 2. The desire of the French government to quiet the agitation and dissatisfaction which prevailed in France, by some outside success.

Algeria (Afrique Française) subjugated by a tedious war with the Arabs and Kabyls, constantly breaking out anew. Abdel-Kader (1827, captured by Lamoricière and the duke of Aumale, fourth son of

1 The ruined cavaliers in England got $3,000,000 in 1661.

HOUSE OF BOURBON IN THE OLDER AND YOUNGER (ORLEANS) LINE.

Henry IV., first king of the House of Bourbon, † 1610.

Louis Philippe ; 1852, released and sent to Asia Minor by Louis Napoleon).

New elections. Return of an increased liberal majority; 202 of the 221 reelected ("aide toi”).

1830, July 27-29.

The July Revolution. The Three

Days of July. The Great Week.

Cause publication of the three (five) ordinances on July 26, professedly founded on article 14. 1. The recent elections declared illegal. 2. The electoral system arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to rich land-owners. 3. Prohibition of the publication of newspapers and pamphlets without a royal permit. This violation of the charter produced a revolt in Paris July 27. Protests (Thiers, Mignet). Barricade fights. July 28, rising of the bourgeoisie; imperfect military preparations, bad leadership and care of the troops, who in part deserted, resulted in the victory of the populace. Capture of the Hôtel de Ville. July 29, capture of the Louvre. Retreat of the troops. Provisional government: Lafitte, Périer, Barrot. Lafayette commander of the national guard. Futile repeal of the ordinances. Duke of Orléans lieutenant general of France ("the charter henceforward to be a reality").

Charles X. († in Görz, in Styria, 1836), and his son, the duke of Angoulême, abdicated in favor of their grandson and nephew, the duke of Bordeaux (who subsequently called himself count of Chambord, p. 527). The claims of this pretender being set aside, the younger line of Bourbon (Orléans, see genealogical table, p. 528) was raised to the throne in the person of

1830-1848. Louis Philippe, the king of the French (le roi bourgeoise; monarchy of July). Alteration of the charter in a liberal spirit. Abolition of art. 14. Prohibition of the censure. The king to share the initiative with the chamber. Ministry of Broglie, Guizot, Lafayette (1830, Aug. 11-Nov.); of Lafitte (1830, Nov. 2-1831, March 13); of Casimir Périer (1831, Mar. 13–1832, May). Trial and condemnation of four ex-ministers of Charles X. Rebellion of the duchess of Berry (1832).

1832, Oct. 11-1836, Feb. Ministry of Thiers, Guizot, Broglie. Insurrection in Lyons (1834, April).

1835, July 28. Fieschi's infernal machine.

By this attempt upon the life of Louis Philippe twelve persons were killed and forty wounded. It was followed by the adoption of laws limiting the freedom of the press (laws of September). Retirement of Guizot, Broglie (doctrinaires); ministry of Feb. 22, 1836 (Thiers, progressionists). Ministry of Sept. 6 (Molé, Guizot; Thiers out). 1836, Oct. 30. Louis Napoleon (nephew of Napoleon I., see the genealogical table, p. 466) made an adventurous attempt to get himself proclaimed emperor at Strasburg. He was captured without difficulty, his accomplices brought to trial, he himself sent to America by the French government on a ship of war (with an annuity of 15,000 francs from Louis Philippe's privy purse).1

1 Guizot, Mémoires, vol. iv. chap. 24.

Ministry of April 15 (1837), Molé without Guizot. Union of Guizot and Thiers in opposition. Republican insurrection in Paris (May 12, 1839). Ministry of Soult (1839, May 12-1840, Mar. 1), without Guizot, Thiers, Odellon-Barrot. Ministry of Thiers (1840, Mar. 1-Oct. 29). Diplomatic complications consequent on the revolt of Mehemet Ali (p. 491).

1840. Second adventurous attempt of Louis Napoleon.

He sailed from Margate with only fifty adherents to Bologne, where he was captured by the national guard, tried by the court of peers, and condemned to imprisonment for life (escaped from Ham under the name and in the dress of a mason, Badinguet, 1846).

The remains of Napoleon I., brought from St. Helena by the prince of Joinville, the third son of Louis Philippe, were solemnly entombed under the dome of the Invalides at Paris (1840, Dec. 15). Fortification of Paris. Quadruple treaty of London (1840, July 15); anger of France. Fall of Thiers.

1840, Oct. 29-1848, Feb. 24. Ministry of Soult and Guizot.

Death of the duke of Orléans (1842, July 13). Trouble with England: Tahiti (Pritchard); Spanish marriages (1843-44). Demand for electoral reform and exclusion of place-men from the chamber of deputies rejected by the government (pensée immuable). During this reign development of the parties: Legitimists (count of Chambord); Orleanists; Bonapartists; Republicans. 1848, Feb. 22-24. The Revolution of February.

Barricade fights with the troops, conducted principally by members of the secret (socialistic) societies, assisted by a section of the national guard, which was dissatisfied with the reactionary policy of the government. Partial defection of the troops. Guizot resigned (Feb. 23). Louis Philippe abdicated in favor of his grandson, the Count of Paris, son of the duke of Orléans († 1842) and the princess Helena of Mecklenburg. Duchess of Orléans in the chamber of deputies. (L'émeute était devenue une révolution.) Provisional government at the Hôtel de Ville (Dupont de l'Eure, Lamartine, Ledru Rollin, Marie, Crémieux, Arago, Garnier-Pagès, the elder). Republic proclaimed (Feb. 24), to the disagreeable surprise of the bourgeoisie of Paris. The socialist Louis Blanc became the head of a commission of laborers (afterwards called ministry of progress) with a view to the "organization of labor," but accomplished nothing practical. Call of a national assembly at Paris to adopt a constitution for the new democratic republic. Establishment of costly public workshops (ateliers nationaux) and recognition of the "right to work." 1 Establishment of the garde mobile.

1848-1851 (1852). France (for the second time) a repub

lic.

June 23-26. Terrible insurrection (the days of sequence of the closing of the ateliers.

June) in Paris in con-
Bloody fights in the

1 It is claimed that Louis Blanc was deceived by the government, who wished his support, but distrusted his theories. The workshops, predestined to failure, were neither conceived nor carried on in accordance with the design of their projector. See Ely, French and German Socialism in Modern Times, p. 113, where authorities are quoted.