§ 3. ROMAN HISTORY.

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY OF ANCIENT ITALY.

(See Kiepert, Atlas Antiquus, Tab. VII., VIII., and IX.)

Italia was first used as the general name of the larger part of the peninsula, which is traversed by the Apennines and extended to the Macra and Rubicon, since the middle of the third century before Christ; as applied to the whole peninsula, as far as the Alps, Italia was first employed in scientific usage by Polybius (about 150); it was not used officially and in a political sense, until after the time of Augustus. It was divided into Upper Italy, Central Italy, and

Lower Italy.

I. Upper Italy, traversed by the Padus (Po), and the Athesis or Atagis (Adige, Etsch), and containing the lakes, Lacus Verbānus (Lago Maggiore), Lacus Larius (L. di Como), and Lacus Benācus (L. di Garda), comprised the following three districts which, before Augustus, were not reckoned a part of political Italy: 1. Liguria, Vercella (Vercelli), Taurasia, later Augusta Taurinorum (Torino, Turin), Genoa (Genova); 2. Gallia Cisalpina, also called togata, in distinction from transalpine Gaul, which was known as Gallia bracata, divided by the Padus (Po) into: a. Gallia transpadana, Comum (Como); Mediolānum (Milano, Milan); Ticīnum (Pavia), on the Ticinus, a branch of the Po; Cremona, on the Po; Mantua, on the Mincius, a branch of the Po, near which was the village of Andes, the birthplace of Virgil; Verōna, on the Athesis. b. Gallia cispadana: Placentia (Piacenza), at the junction of the Trebia and the Padus, Mutina, (Moděna), Parma, Bononia (Bologna), Ravenna, in ancient times a seaport. 3. Venetia: Patavium (Padua), birthplace of Livius, Aquileia.

The

II. Central Italy, lying between the little rivers Macra and Rubicon in the N., Silarus and Frento in the S., was usually divided into six districts: Etruria, Latium, Campania, on the Mare Tyrrhenum, or Inferum; Umbria, Picenum, Samnium, on the Mare Adriaticum or Supĕrum. The Tiber, running from N. to S., divided Etruria on the right, from Umbria and Latium on the left bank. name of Samnium is, however, more correctly applied to the southern inland district of Central Italy, so that the Sabellic tribes, who were related to the Samnites and Picentes, formed geographically a separate seventh group, under which were included the Vestini, Marrucīni and Frentani, extending to the Adriatic coast, and the inland districts of the Sabines, Paligni, and Marsi.

1. Etruria, inhabited by the Etruscans (Rasenna), or Tuscans, in twelve communities under kings or Lucumos. These formed a confederacy, whose federal constitution seems to have been exceedingly loose. The most important places in Etruria were, from N. to S.: Pisa, Volaterra, Arretium (Arezzo), Cortōna, Perusia (Perugia, west of which Lake Trasimenus), Populonia, on the coast, Clusium (Chiusi), Volsinii, Tarquinii, Falerii, Care, Vei.

1

2. Latium. In the smaller district of the Latini: Roma, on the left bank of the Tiber (a part of the modern city, Trastevere and Borgo, is on the right bank, but the principal part of the city is still on the left bank), traditionally said to be built on seven hills (montes: Capitolinus, Palatinus, Aventinus, Calius, Esquilinus; colles: Viminalis, Quirinalis). On the southern summit of the Mons Capitolinus the Capitolium with the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and the Tarpeian Rock; on the northern summit, separated from the southern by the Intermontium, the Arx with the temple of Juno Monēta. At the foot of the Capitol, the Forum Romanum (the market-place), consisting of the Forum proper, and the Comitium, with the speakers' platform (Rostra, named from the prows of the ships from Antium) between the two. In the last century of the republic the forum was surrounded by temples and basilicas (e. g. Basilica Julia). The imperial forums were not open places, but masses of buildings and columned porticos. The Palatinus with the palaces of the emperors; E. of this, the Amphitheatrum Flavium (Colosseum, for 80,000 spectators). N. from the Capitolinus to the Tiber lay the field of Mars, Campus Martius, during the republic an open field used for military practice, athletic sports, and political gatherings, after Cæsar and during the imperial period covered with splendid buildings, now the centre of the modern city. The buildings on the right bank of the Tiber did not belong to the Urbs proper. They were situated partially on the Mons Janiculus, partially on the Mons Vaticanus, where the Vatican and the church of St. Peter now stand; eastward stood, by the Tiber, the Mausoleum Hadriani, where the Castle of St. Angelo now stands. Finally must be mentioned the island of the Tiber. Sixteen great artificial roads ran from Rome in various directions: Via Appia and Via Latina to the S., Via Valeria to the E., Via Flaminia to the N., Via Aurelia to the W., etc.

Ostia, the harbor of Rome, on the left bank of the Tiber, existed at the time of the kings; under the emperors a second harbor, Portus, on the right bank of the Tiber. Laurentum, Lavinium, Ardea, Suessa Pometia, Aricia (on the Via Appia), Velitræ not far distant, Alba Longa on the slope of Mt. Albanus, near the lake of Albania, Tusculum (near the present Frascati), Gabii, Tibur (Tivoli) on the Anio, a branch of the Tiber; Fidence, north of Rome, south of the brook Allia.

In the land of the Æqui, Præneste (afterwards a Latin city again. In the land of the Hernica, Anagnia. In the land of the Volscii, Fregella, Arpinum, the birthplace of Marius and Cicero ; on the coast, Antium and Tarracina (Anxur), south of the Pomptine marshes. In the land of the Arunci: Formia, Minturnæ, on the Liris (Garigliano); Suessa (Aurunca), near the Mons Massicus and the Ager Falernus (famous wines).

1 The expression "seven-hilled city" applies properly to old Rome, the palatine city. Its transfer to the Servian and republican Rome is the result of a later misunderstanding. The description of the city of the time of Constantine, leaves out the two colles, Quirinalis and Viminalis, and increases the number of montes to 7 by adding the Vaticanus and the Janiculus, which lay outside of the city proper. Sce Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, I. 116, note.

3. Campania, traversed by the Volturnus (Volturno), with the mountains Gaurus and Vesuvius near Naples. Two bays separated from one another by a rocky isthmus: Sinus Cumanus (Bay of Naples), and Sinus Pastanus (Bay of Salerno). Along the coast: Liternum; Cuma (Kúun, founded by a colony from Chalcis in Euboea in 1050 ?); Misēnum near the promontory of similar name; Puteŏli (Puzzuoli); Baic near lake Lucrinus, famous as a watering place; Parthenope or Palæopolis, the oldest part of Neapolis (Neánoλis, Napoli, Naples); Herculaneum and Pompeii, buried in 79 A. D. by lava and ashes from Vesuvius; Salernum on the Sinus Pæstanus, the chief city of the Picentes who had been transferred thither. Inland: Capua (not the modern Capua, but Santa Maria Maggiore), with an immense amphitheatre; Nola.

4. Umbria. On the coast: Ariminum (Rimini), Pisaurum, Sena Gallica (Sinagaglia). Inland: Sentinum, Iguvium, Spoletium.

5. Picenum. Ancona on the coast; Asculum Picenum.

6. Samnium (in the wider sense, see p. 81). In the land of the Sabini: Amiternum, birthplace of Sallust; Cures, Reate. In the land of the Paligni: Corfinium; Sulmo, birthplace of Ovid. In Samnium proper: Bovianum; sernia; Beneventum (Benevento), former Malventum; Caudium, in the neighborhood of the Caudine Pass (Furculæ Caudina).

III. Lower Italy, also called Greater Greece, Magna Græca ('Exλàs ʼn μeyáλn), was divided into four districts: Apulia, Calabria in the east, Lucania and Bruttium in the west.

1. Apulia Luceria, A(u)sculum Apulum, Canna, Venusia, birthplace of Horace, near Mt. Vultur. 2. Calabria Brundisium (Brindisi), the port of departure for Greece; Tarentum (Tápas, see p. 51). 3. Lucania: Pæstum (Posidonia, Пoσedwvía), with notable ruins of temples; Metapontum; Heraclea ('Hрáкλeia). 4. Bruttium: Sybaris (Zúßapis), destroyed in 510, by the Crotonians; Thurii afterwards built in its neighborhood (see p. 64); Croton (Kpóτwv), not far from the promontory of Lacinium; Locri Epizephyrii (Aoкpol 'EmCeppio); Rhegium ('Phylov, i. e. rent, from pyvuμ, the present Reggio). Consentia (Cosenza on the river Busento).

Italian Islands.

Sicilia (ZIKEλía), separated from Italy by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina), formerly called Sicania, also Trinacria, with its three capes, or promontories: Pelōrum in the north, Pachynum in the south, and Lilybæum in the west. On the eastern coast from north to south: Messana (formerly Zancle, p. 51), Tauromenium (Taormina), Catăna (Catania) at the base of tna, Syracusæ (Eupákovoαi, Siragossa, see p. 51), at the time of its greatest extent comprising five cities: Ortygia, situated on an island, and hence also called Nasos, which now forms the whole city, with the spring of Arethusa, Achradina, Tycha, Neapolis, and Epipole, at first a suburb.

1 This form (instead of Bruttii, Bruttius Ager) has, however, no ancient authority. The Byzantines after the tenth century, A. D., gave Bruttium the name Calabria, after the Normans had dispossessed them of Calabria proper, and the eastern peninsula was known after that time as Apulia.

On the south coast: Camarina, Gela, Agrigentum ('Akpayas, now Girgenti), between Gela and Agrigentum the promontory of Ecnomos, not far from the mouth of the (southern) river Himera; Selinus (Zeλivoûs). On the west coast: Libybæum, Drepănum, Eryx. On the north coast: Panormus (Пávoрuos, now Palermo, see p. 17), Himera, Myla. In the interior of the island: Henna.

Sardinia (Zapoú): Carǎlis (Cagliari).

Corsica (Kúpvos): Alalia, later the Roman colony of Aleria. Of the smaller islands the following are noteworthy: 1. Melita, now Malta, and Gaudos, now Gozzo, south of Sicily. 2. The Insulæ Egates, on the west of Sicily, not far from the promontory Lilybæum. 3. The Insula Eolia (now the Liparian islands) the largest, Lipăra, north of Sicily. 4. Capreæ, now Capri, and Enaria, now Ischia, at the entrance to the Bay of Naples. 5. The Pontian islands, Pontia, Pandataria. 6. Ilva, now Elba.

RELIGION OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS.1

The Romans possessed an ancient religion entirely distinct from that of Greece. It was a common inheritance of the Italians, though probably early receiving Etruscan and Grecian elements. In the last centuries of the republic the theogony of Greece was imported into Roman literature, and to some extent into the state religion. At a still later time, under a policy of tolerance, all forms of faith and superstition were represented in the great capital.

The religion of the Romans was a polytheism, but their deification of nature was not so detailed, nor were their deities so human as was the case among the Greeks. Their faith had a sterner aspect, the practical side of religion was more natural to them than the poetic side. They honored and utilized their gods, but they wove few fancies about them.

The great gods were: Jupiter, god of the sky, "father of gods and men;" Juno, his wife, goddess of maternity; Minerva, goddess of intellect, presiding over the arts; Mars, god of war, the most representative of the Italian divinities; Bellona, goddess of war; Vesta, patron of the Roman state, goddess of the national hearth, where burned the sacred fire; Ceres, Saturnus, goddess and god of agriculture; Ops, goddess of the harvest and of wealth; Hercules, god of gain, presiding over the sanctity of contracts; Mercurius, god of traffic; Neptunus, god of the sea.

Venus seems not to have been one of the original Italian divinities. She first appears as a goddess of agriculture, but was soon identified with Aphrodite, the Grecian goddess of love. Of the lesser gods there were many, watching over every act of individuals and of the state, and over every stage of growth and development. Such were Tellus, Silvanus, Terminus, Quirinus, Janus, the god of the beginning and end, represented with a double face. (Gate of Janus in the comiturm, open in time of war, closed in time of peace). Lares and Penates, presiding over the family and the home, Sol, Luna, etc.

1 Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World, chap. VIII. Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, Book I. chap. XII. Leighton, Hist. of Rome, chap. IV.

Worship. The worship of the Romans consisted of a round of ceremonies, prayers, sacrifices, games, of strictly prescribed form, with the object of securing the good-will, averting the anger or ascertaining the intentions of the gods. In private life these ceremonies were performed in the family and were conducted by its head, the pater familias; in matters affecting the whole people, the state, which was a larger family, conducted the worship. In early times the king presided at the ceremonies. Under the republic a rex sacrificulus was appointed to perform those religious acts which were formerly the exclusive right and duty of the king.

The state maintained at public cost: 1. "Colleges of sacred lore" having general supervision over religion and all matters connected therewith. The most important were: The college of Pontifices, four in number (afterwards nine and sixteen), the highest religious power in the state. With them rested the decision as to which days were suitable for the transaction of business, public or private, and which not (dies fasti et nefasti). Hence they controlled the calendar, whereby they, with the augures, became important instruments in the hands of the government. The pontifices also decided upon the action made necessary by the auguries. At their head stood the pontifex maximus, who appointed the rex sacrificulus, the flamines and vestales. College of Augures, originally four, then nine and sixteen, who consulted the will of the gods, as revealed in omens, by the observation of the flight, cries, and manner of feeding of certain birds. College of Fetiales, twenty (?) in number, presiding over the relations between the Romans and other peoples. They conducted the conclusion of treaties, acted as heralds, and performed the ceremony of declaration_of_war, by throwing a blood-tipped spear into the hostile territory.1 Duumviri Sacrorum, having the charge of the Sibylline books. The haruspices exercised the art of interpreting the will of the gods from the examination of the entrails of slaughtered victims. They were an Etruscan institution.

2. Colleges of officiating priests: Flamines, who presided in various temples with chapters of assisting priests. Salii, or dancing priests, of Quirinus and Mars, the latter having charge of the sacred shields of Mars (ancilla). Vestal Virgins, guardians of the sacred fire of Vesta, six maidens who had taken the vow of virginity. perci, Fratres Arvales, etc.

Lu

Besides the observance of sacrifices and the offering of prayers, the priests had charge of conducting various public games: Lupercalia, (Feb. 15th), Feria Latina, Saturnalia (Dec.) and others.

ETHNOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF ITALY.2

At the extreme south the Iapygians. Their descent is not certainly established, though they undoubtedly belong to the Indo-European family and probably to the Illyrian race. In historic times the remnants of the tribe appear, in striking contradistinction to the true Italici, in process of rapid Hellenization.

1 When the growth of the Roman dominion had made this a matter of difficulty, a plot of ground in Rome was set apart to represent hostile territory, and into this the spear was hurled.

2 Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, I. chap. 2.