And this is it men mean by distributive justice, and is properly tempered equity.-Hobbes, Elements of Law, part i. chap. iv. 2. The English relative that is used for all genders, and for either number; hence it is conveniently used for who or which, when we do not wish to discriminate gender; and in instances where the antecedents refer to things, as well as persons: thus, Ulysses spoke of the men and the cities that he had seen. 241. Who is derived from the interrogative hwa, 'who?' In the authorised version of the Bible, the relative who is occasionally employed, but the more usual relative is that. Who is never used as an adjective. The genitive whose is used as the possessive case of the relative pronoun; and in prose, custom has been in favour of restricting it to the masculine and feminine genders. Etymologically, it might be used of all genders, for, in Anglo-Saxon, the genitive hwas was employed for the neuter as well as for the masculine or the feminine. In the poets, we constantly find whose referring to neuter nouns: as, But that I am forbid To tell the secrets of my prison-house, And makes us rather bear those ills we have, Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste Brought death into the world and all our woe, With loss of Eden, till one greater man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 1-6. 242. What is derived from hwat, the neuter of the interrogative: it is nominative or objective, singular and neuter. When used as a relative, what may be used substantively or adjectively. But it has a peculiar force; it appears to be equivalent to an antecedent and a relative combined: 'What I said was this,' i.e. that which I said was this;''what time I am afraid, I will trust in thee,' i.e. at that time at which I am afraid, I will trust in thee.' But it is a mistake, says Mr. Mason (English Grammar, § 161), to parse the word what, as though it were made up of that which. In such a sentence as 'I know what is correct,' it is wrong to say that what is in any sense governed by the verb know. What is the subject of the verb is, and is in the nominative case. We may suppose that this use of what originated from the employment of that in two co-ordinate sentences: as, That he bids, that thou shalt do. and by conversion, Thou shalt do what he bids. But let us consider this passage: What he bids be done is finished with his bidding.- Here we want a nominative to the verb is; and we also want an objective dependent upon the verb bids, or to stand as a subject-accusative to the infinitive be done: hence there is a strong temptation to resolve what into that which: That, which he bids be done, is finished with the bidding. If we say, that what is here the objective, then the nominative of the sentence (that) is omitted, and we have a sentence without an apparent nominative. 243. Which, as we have seen (§ 234), is a compound word, and is used both as an adjective and a substantive. Although, in practice, its use is limited to inanimate and irrational beings, yet it is not properly the neuter of who. Hence 'Our Father which art in heaven' is grammatically accurate; although it appears that the Americans have thought right to alter which into who. Cobbett says (English Grammar, § 65), 'This application of the relative which solely to irrational creatures is, however, of modern date; for, in the Lord's Prayer, in the English Church Service, we say, "Our Father which art in heaven." In the American Liturgy this error has been corrected; and they say, "Our Father who art in heaven." But there was no error, and consequently no necessity for change. Still the usage of the language has varied, and by present custom who, whose, whom are now limited, in prose, to rational beings; which to irrational beings, inanimate objects, and collective nouns, when the idea of per sonality is not prominent; while that may represent nouns of any kind. See Angus, Handbook, § 435. 244. When inanimate objects are personified, who, whose, and whom may be employed; but we should avoid a confusion of genders: as, 'Twas Love's mistake, who fancied what it feared. Crabbe. Connection of the Antecedent and the Relative. 245. The Antecedent may be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive used substantively, a phrase, or a sentence. Some men are too ignorant to be humble, without which there can be no docility and no progress.—Berkeley. Homer is remarkably concise, which renders him lively and agreeable.-Blair. Here the antecedents are the 'being humble' and the fact of 'being concise.' 246. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either expressed or understood: as, Who steals my purse, steals trash. that is, the man who, or he who. Othello, iii. 3. 247. The relative is of the same person with the anteceand the verb agrees with it accordingly: as, dent; Who is this that cometh from Edom; this that is glorious in his apparel? I that speak in righteousness. Isaiah lxiii. 1. O shepherd of Israel; Thou that leadest Joseph like a flock; Thou that dwellest between the Cherubims, shine forth.-Psalm lxxx. 1. I am the Lord that maketh all things; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone; that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself.-Isaiah xliv. 21. In the first part of the sentence 'I am the Lord that maketh that stretcheth,' all is right: the Lord in the third person is the antecedent, and the verb agrees with the relative in the third person: 'I am the Lord, which Lord, or he, that maketh all things.' It would have been equally right, if I had been made the antecedent, and the relative and the verb had agreed with it in the first person: 'I am the Lord, that make all things.' But when it follows, that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself,' there arises an apparent confusion of the third and first persons.-See Lowth, English Grammar, p. 145. But in Hebrew poetry we often find an alternation of persons, not in accordance with formal grammar, but quite intelligible, and conducive to poetical ornament: as, O that my people had hearkened unto me, and Israel had walked in my ways! I should soon have subdued their enemies, and turned my hand against their adversaries. The haters of the Lord should have submitted themselves unto him; but their time should have endured for ever. He should have fed them also with the finest of the wheat; and with honey out of the rock should I have satisfied thee. Psalm lxxxi. 13-16. 248. Our own poets sometimes take a license which is not so warrantable, because it exhibits rather confusion than alternation: as, Thou great first cause, least understood, To know but this, that Thou art good, Yet gave me in this dark estate, &c. Pope, Universal Prayer. In strict grammar, the poet should have written confinedst or didst confine, gavest or didst give. And so here: O thou supreme! high throned all height above! Who midst surrounding frost, and vapours chill, Pope, Iliad, xvi. 284. where the grammar requires presidest. 249. A collective noun, representing a class or group of individuals, is referred to by which, and the verb follows in the singular; but when the idea of plurality is intended, the notion of personality also comes in; and then the reference is by means of the pronoun 'who,' and the verb follows in the plural: The committee, which was appointed last session, reports in favour of the bill. as, The ministry, who were divided among themselves, were obliged to resign. Care must be taken not to combine the two constructions: That ingenious nation, who have done so much for modern literature, possesses in an eminent degree the talent of narration.-Blair. 250. In older English, which and that are frequently found after such as, Avoid such games, which require much time or long attendance. Jeremy Taylor. But with such words that are but rooted in your tongue. 251. Instead of a relative pronoun, we more commonly use the relative adverb as, after the antecedents such, same: as, Tears, such as angels weep, burst forth. Milton, Paradise Lost, i. 620. i. e. 'tears like those which angels weep.' Art thou afeard To be the same in thine own act and valour, As thou art in desire? Macbeth, i. 7. In like manner but is fréquently equivalent to a relative and a negative: There is no vice so simple, but assumes Merchant of Venice, iii. 2. 252. But although as, after such and same, has the force of a relative, we cannot admit that it is a relative pronoun. Dr. Adams (English Grammar, § 253) and Professor Bain (English Grammar, p. 24) are careful to use the term 'relative,' and not 'relative pronoun.' So too Dr. Angus (Handbook, § 227). But the latter adds, "The use of as and so with a pronominal force, is justified by analogous forms in the Gothic languages.' No doubt there is a tendency in the Germánic languages to employ an adverb where other languages would use a pronoun. We say wherein,' 'whereby,' for 'in which,' by which;' and the Germans are fond of using such forms as 'dazu,'' dabei,'' dadurch,' equivalent to 'thereto,' 'thereby,' 'therethrough.' |