This may or may not be the case; but even if true, it is nothing to the purpose, unless we are prepared to admit the principle that Parts of Speech are to be arranged according to signification and not according to function. Sir John Stoddart allows that Horne Tooke has accurately traced home' some conjunctions; while, in regard to others, he has been mistaken. But whether right or wrong in the particular instances, his general doctrine can derive no benefit from them. To prove that a word performs one function at one time, does not disprove its performing another function at another time. To which we may add, that the etymology of a word has nothing necessarily to do with its function in a sentence; just as a man's pedigree is not absolutely connected with his occupation as a citizen.-See Universal Grammar, p. 159; and compare §§ 405, 461.

446. On the whole, there is no sufficient reason against the doctrine, that conjunctions may join together individual words; and by admitting this principle, we gain an advantage in the analysis of what are termed 'contracted sentences.' Take for example the sentence 'He saw you and me.' Now, if conjunctions cannot couple individual words, this sentence must be analysed thus: (1) He saw you, and (2) He saw me. Whereas, if we admit that the conjunction and couples you and me, we may take you and me as a compound objective dependent upon the verb saw.

Nor can there be any great difficulty in distinguishing between conjunctions and prepositions. A preposition can govern nouns, but a conjunction can not. The two words joined by a conjunction are both affected by a common concord or government: as, ' You and I will accompany him and them. A conjunction can join sentences together, which is never the office of a preposition. When, for instance, before is used to introduce a subordinate sentence, as, 'He came before they left,' it ceases to be a preposition and becomes a conjunction (or conjunctive adverb). Lastly,, a preposition may denote various relations of time and place; while the relations denoted by a conjunction are chiefly three: (1) Addition, as and; (2) Alternation, as or; (3) Opposition, as but.

three

447. Accordingly we divide conjunctions into classes (1) Copulative; (2) Alternative; (3) Adversative. These are also termed Co-ordinating Conjunctions, because they join together co-ordinate sentences, that is, sentences of equal rank. The so-called Subordinating Conjunctions will be considered separately. See Chapter xiv.

1. COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

and. This is the chief of the class; it unites sentences, where the meaning adds something to that which precedes. Horne Tooke derives the word from an-ad, which he expounds da congeriem. But this is altogether doubtful. It has been doubted whether anan meant to give,' or 'to grant,' and of the syllable ad which he translates' congeriem,' we know nothing.

Mr. Wedgwood, in his Dictionary of English Etymology, considers and and an the same word; but he does not throw any light upon the origin.

both... and. For the sake of emphasis, sometimes each coordinate sentence has a prefix. The word both is frequently used with the first sentence. It is originally ba-twa, 'both-two,' also written bu-twu and bu-tu.

Other forms are employed to join co-ordinate sentences, as 'not only... but,' 'partly... partly,' 'first ... then.'

also and likewise are enumerated by Professor Bain among co-ordinating conjunctions, Grammar, p. 64. On the other hand, Mr. Mason says that these words are not conjunctions, but demonstrative adverbs.-Grammar, § 409.

Also is A.-S. eall-swa, 'all-so;' and likewise is compounded of like and A.-S. wise, 'way,' 'manner;' hence likewise signifies 'in like manner.' Professor Bain mentions a play upon the word wise in this compound: a remark was made upon the son of a judge who had succeeded to his father's office, but not to his ability, that he was a judge also, but not like-wise.' -Grammar, p. 64.

eke. This word, as a conjunction, has become nearly obsolete in modern English, with the exception of a few colloquial phrases, or in ballad poetry: as,

John Gilpin was a citizen

Of credit and renown;

A train-band captain eke was he,

Of famous London town.

Cowper.

But it is from the same root as the verb eke, 'to increase,' or, 'to make a thing last out.' The A.-S. eac,

'also,' is similarly connected with eacan, or ecan, 'to increase, add.' Compare the Latin augeo, and the Greek αὐξάνω.

See Horne Tooke, Diversions of Purley, i. 134, 171; Sir John Stoddart, Universal Grammar, p. 163; and Wedgwood, Dictionary of English Etymology, EKE.

2. ALTERNATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

448. The chief word of this class is or, which appears to be contracted from the A.-S. pronoun oder, 'other;' though the A.-S. word corresponding in signification to or is oððe. In older English we find other in the sense of the modern or:

as,

i. e.

Ful feole and fille

Beoth yfounde, in heorte and wille

That hadde levere a ribaudye

Than to here of God, other of seynte Marie.

Kyng Alisaunder.

'Than to hear of God, or of St. Mary.' It is very important to distinguish between or when it is a true alternative, pointing out different things (Latin aut); and or, where it expresses an equivalent in other terms, and merely indicates a nominal difference (Latin id est, or alias).

Thus in the phrase Christ or the Messiah,' the particle introduces merely an alternative name, the person being the same. And the same occurs when we say, A Sovereign or Supreme Ruler always rules in England.' But when we say, 'A king or queen always rules in England,' the difference is real, indicating distinct persons.

nor.

This word is formed from the negative ne and or. The corresponding A.-S. word is naðor, naðer, nawðer, forms used sometimes as pronouns, and at other times as conjunctions.

We must remember that in some cases, nor has, not an alternative, but a copulative force, equivalent to ' and not:' as,

My ventures are not in one bottom trusted,
Nor to one place; nor is my whole estate
Upon the fortune of this present year.

Merchant of Venice, i. 1.

449. In alternative sentences, it frequently happens that each clause has an introductory particle, as either... or; and so in the negative, neither... nor.

either. This is one of the words variously termed an adjective pronoun, or a pronominal adjective (see § 285). But it is also used as a conjunction. The A.-S. ægther,' either,' is used in a similar manner; and so is the pronominal form aðor, auðer.

...

neither. This word is formed from the negative ne and either. Where these particles are used, care should be taken to observe the correct sequence, either or, neither... nor. Of course, neither... or is quite wrong. Some critics say that nor should not be used, unless preceded by neither. If this rule is sound, and it needs verification, it must be restricted to the alternative use of nor.

In poetry, or is frequently substituted for either, nor for neither: as,

Or by the lazy Scheldt, or wandering Po.-Goldsmith.
Nor Simois,

Nor rapid Xanthus' celebrated flood.

Addison.

Either, or, neither, nor should be placed next the words to which they refer: as, 'Neither he, nor his friends were present.' It neither improves the understanding, nor delights the heart.'

3. ADVERSATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.

450. The principal conjunction in this class is but, originally a preposition, A.-S. be-utan, butan, 'by-out,' corresponding in form, and even in signification, to 'with-out.' See § 473.

In older English, the forms bot and but occur. Horne Tooke attempts to set up a distinction between them, and derives bot from the imperative of botan, to boot,' that is, 'to superadd.' See Diversions of Purley, i. 182, 306. This distinction is not considered tenable; but some of Horne Tooke's observations are well worth consulting. He shows that, in older English, but and without were indifferently used as prepositions and as conjunctions; but that in course of time, but ceased to be recognised as a preposition; and without ceased to be correctly used as a conjunction, p. 306.

His criticism of Locke's remarks on the word but, is given ibid. pp. 182-205.

The adversative force of but is emphatically marked in this passage:

Messenger. Madam, madam

Cleopatra. Antony's dead?—

If thou say so, villain, thou kill'st thy mistress:
But well and free,

If thou so yield him, there is gold, there

My bluest veins to kiss: a hand, that kings
Have lipped, and trembled kissing.

Messenger. First, madam, he's well.

Cleopatra. Why, there's more gold. But, sirrah, mark;

we use

To say the dead are well.

Messenger. Good madam, hear me.

Cleopatra. Well, go to, I will;

But there's no goodness in thy face.

Messenger. Madam, he's well.

Cleopatra. Well said.

Messenger. And friends with Cæsar.

Cleopatra. Thou'rt an honest man.

Messenger. Cæsar and he are greater friends than ever.

Cleopatra. Make thee a fortune from me.

Messenger. But yet, madam

Cleopatra.. I do not like but yet, it does alloy

The good precedence: fie upon but yet.

But yet is as a gaoler to bring forth

Some monstrous malefactor.

Antony and Cleopatra, ii. 5.

451. Professor Bain remarks (Grammar, p. 66) :—

It is a loose employment of this forcible word, to bring it in where there is no exception taken, or no arrest put upon a natural inference. 'No man taketh it from me, but I lay it down of myself.'

་

In this passage Professor Bain considers but unnecessary. It is also a common mistake to use it in the sense of now, as signifying the completion of a case in order to draw an inference. 'Men are mortal; but

(for now') we are men; therefore we are mortal.' still. This word appears to be derived from the adjective still, and is used in the sense of yet. It is even more emphatic than but, suggesting a pause to hear what may be said by way of exception or opposition to the previous statements. 'Everything went against him, still he persisted.'