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5. Cause and Effect.

66. Co-ordinate Sentences, denoting cause and effect, are introduced respectively by the words because and therefore. These are originally by-cause' and there-for,' namely, for that (cause).' The prepositions for and fore are constantly confounded.

In the full form, then, we have,

Cause. Because-it froze last night.

Effect. Therefore the pools are covered with ice.

But, on this subject, a seeming inconsistency is observable. When because' is omitted, and we say,

It froze last night; therefore, the pools are covered with ice; the grammarians maintain that the two clauses are still coordinate sentences, connected by the adverb 'therefore.' But when therefore' is omitted, and we say,

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The pools are covered with ice, because it froze last night, we are told that 'The pools are covered with ice' is now a Principal Sentence; and that the words 'it froze last night,' constitute a Subordinate Sentence, attached by the conjunction because.'

At first sight, the distinction is not obvious, nor is the difference between adverb and conjunction very clear. Still the distinction may exist, and the following point deserves notice:

In the sentence 'It froze last night; therefore the pools are covered with ice,' we may insert the conjunction and between the clauses; thus,

It froze last night, and therefore the pools are covered with ice..

Now here we have two co-ordinate sentences coupled by the conjunction and.

But in the sentence, 'The pools are covered with ice, because it froze last night,' the two clauses are so intimately bound up together, that we cannot insert a conjunction between them. If the two clauses are not co-ordinates, we must expound one as the Principal, and the other as the Accessory Clause.

At all events, it is objectionable to discuss these forms in different parts of the grammar; the one under the head of Coordinate Sentences, the other under the head of Principal and Accessory. It is very important that the pupil should acquire precise notions upon the relation of Cause and Effect. For this

purpose, the whole subject should be brought under one view. Younger pupils should remember, that we may first assign the cause, and then state the effect; or we may first state the effect, and then assign the cause. For example, we may say,

or,

The season was dry, therefore the crops failed,

The crops failed, because the season was dry. Again, The string is pulled too tight, therefore it breaks, The string breaks, because it is pulled too tight.

or,

6. Reason and Conclusion.

67. Sentences which express reason and conclusion are called illative, that is, 'inferential,' because they are used in drawing 'inferences.'

It is often a source of perplexity that the 'illative conjunctions' because and therefore are employed to denote reason and conclusion, as well as cause and effect.

or,

or,

1. Cause and Effect:

The ground is rich, and therefore the trees flourish,

The trees flourish, because the ground is rich.

2. Reason and Conclusion:

The trees are flourishing, and therefore the ground is rich,

The ground is rich, because the trees are flourishing. See Whately, Logic, I. 2. The difficulty vanishes, if, in stating the Reason and Conclusion, we substitute 'by-reason' for because, and 'thereby (we know that)' for therefore.

We shall state the sentences as co-ordinates.

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By-reason the trees are flourishing,

Thereby (we know that)

...

the ground is rich.

Some writers have used the phrase 'by reason' instead of 'because,' where a reason or motive is signified. Thus we read of Sir Roger de Coverley :

It is said, he keeps himself a bachelor, by reason he was crossed in love by a perverse beautiful widow of the next county to him. Spectator, No. 2.

However, this form is not usual; and no substitute has been provided in corresponding cases for 'therefore.'

In ordinary argument it is very common to state the conclusion first, and then to assign the reason or reasons: thus, Emulation is useful, because it promotes diligence. Emulation is injurious, because it excites envy.

Instead of because, other particles are often used to introduce the reason: for, as, since, or the more formal whereas.

7. Action (or State) and Result.

68. A sentence expressing Action and Result differs from one denoting Cause and Effect, just as a mere narrative differs from an argumentative statement.

The simplest form exhibits two co-ordinate sentences: as, He ran fast, and he was out of breath.

If we say,

He ran fast, and so he was out of breath,

the word so occupies a place analogous to therefore in a formal argument. But, in our view, the sentences are still coordinate.

If, however, we proceed a step further, and say,

He ran so fast, that he was out of breath,

we must consider the first clause as a Principal, and the second as an Accessory Clause.

In analysing such a sentence, the followers of Becker would regard so as an 'adverb' qualifying the adverb 'fast;' and 'that he was out of breath,' as an adverb-clause modifying the adverb so.

The following method, however, may be worthy of consideration :

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69. The sentences denoting this relation had passed in Anglo-Saxon into the advanced stage; and the Accessory Clause was introduced by that alone: as,

das thing ic eow sæde, that ge habbon sibbe on me. these things I to-you said, that ye may-have peace in me. John xvi. 33. The Vulgate reads, 'Hæc locutus sum vobis, ut in me pacem habeatis.' The Anglo-Saxon made no distinction between the past tense 'said' and the present-perfect 'have said.' But our English version is wrong: These things I have spoken unto you, that in me ye might have peace.' We may read 'I spoke that ye might,' or 'I have spoken . . . that that ye may;' but we must not mix the two constructions.

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Instead of an Accessory Clause introduced by that, we may have a gerund with to: thus, for

we may say

He labours, that he may become rich:
He studies, that he may improve:

He labours to become rich:

He studies to improve:

where to denotes in order to,' for the purpose to;' and therefore to become,'' to improve,' are not simple infinitives, but what we call the gerund with to.' The Latin scholar will see at once, that 'to become,'' to improve,' could not be rendered in Latin by infinitives.

Where the subordinate sentence involves a negative, we often find lest as equivalent to that... not: as,

or,

He labours, lest he should be dependent,

He labours, that he may not be dependent.

9. Condition and Consequence.

70. Grammarians have dwelt at considerable length on this relation; and some of the terms which they employ present difficulty to the learner.

Mr. Mason says, (English Grammar, § 440,) 'In adverbial clauses of condition, the principal sentence is called the con

sequent clause (i. e. the clause which expresses the consequence);

the subordinate sentence is called the hypothetical clause (i. e. the clause which expresses the hypothesis, supposition or concession).'

The Greek hypothesis is equivalent to the Latin suppositio, and literally means the 'groundwork' or 'foundation, hence

'that which is laid down as the basis of an argument.' By the Greek grammarians, the hypothetical (or supposing) clause is termed the protasis (i. e. the 'putting forward '); while the consequent clause is named the apodosis, (i. e. the 'paying back,' the 'rejoinder').

With younger pupils, I have found it simpler to call these clauses respectively the 'if-clause,' and the 'then-clause;" for although, in modern English, then is not very often found introducing the consequent clause, it sometimes held such a position in the older stages of the language.

We have then the following comparison of terms:

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By some writers, the hypothetical clause is termed the conditional clause.

Although the general tendency of philological opinion is now rather against Horne Tooke's derivation of 'if,' I still think the word is derived from gif, 'give,' the imperative mood of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan. In many instances, we find two co-ordinate sentences, with an imperative mood in each clause; and this may have been the original form: as, Gyf thu hyt eart, hat me cuman to the. Give thou it art, bid me come to thee.

'If it be thou, bid me come to thee.'
Matthew xiv. 28.

Here gyf means 'give that,' 'grant that,' or 'suppose that.'
Sometimes we find a question in the second clause: as,
Gyf Dauid hyne Dryhten clepað, hu ys he hys sunu?
Give David him Lord calleth, how is he his son?

'If David call him Lord, how is he his son?'

Matthew xxii. 45.

71. At other times, we find an indicative in the second clause, introduced by the particle thonne 'then :' as,

Gif ge forgyfað mannum heora synna, thonne forgyfð
Give ye forgive to-men their sins, then forgiveth

eower se heofenlica Fæder eow eowre gyltas.
your the heavenly Father to-you your guilts.

" If ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly Father will also forgive you.'-Matthew vi. 14.

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