co-ordinate clauses are introduced respectively by though

yet, or although

yet. If there is occasion to distinguish

them, they may be termed the though-clause,' and the yetclause.'

Sometimes we find the indicative in the though-clause, and at other times the subjunctive: as,

Indicative:

Though ye have lien among the pots, yet shall ye be as the wings of a dove covered with silver.-Psalm lxviii. 13.

Although affliction cometh not forth of the dust

man is born unto trouble.—Job v. 6, 7.

yet

Although thou sayest thou shalt not see him, yet judgment is before him.-Id. xxxv. 14.

Subjunctive:

Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him.-Job xiii. 15.
Though the root thereof wax old in the earth .

yet

through the scent of water it will bud.—Id. xiv. 8, 9. Though his excellency mount up to the heavens, yet he shall perish for ever.-Id. xx. 6, 7.

83. In the following passages the form does not help us to determine whether the verbs are in the indicative or the subjunctive :

Though I speak, my grief is not asswaged.-Job xvi. 6.

Though after my skin worms destroy this body, yet in my flesh shall I see God.-Id. xix. 26.

Sometimes we have the future indicative in the thoughclause: as,

Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, neither shall fruit be in the vines; the labour of the olive shall fail, and the fields shall yield no meat; the flock shall be cut off from the fold, and there shall be no herd in the stalls; yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will joy in the God of my salvation.-Habakkuk iii. 17, 18.

84. When an imaginary case is put, the non-existence of which is implied, we find the past-imperfect subjunctive in the though-clause; as,

Whom, though I were righteous, yet would I not
Job viii. 15.

answer.

Though I were perfect, yet would I not know my soul.

Id. viii. 21.

When the yet-clause becomes a Principal Clause, the particle yet is omitted, and the though-clause becomes accessory;

as,

Though I speak, my grief is not asswaged.-Job xvi. 6.
Vain man would be wise, though man be born like
a wild ass's colt.

Id. xi. 12.

III. COMPOUND SENTENCES COMPRISING SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 85. That which we term the Subordinate Clause forms an integral part of the Compound Sentence.

The Subordinate Clause may be a Subject or an Object, in the whole Compound Sentence of which it forms a part; or it may take the place of an Adjective.

When the Subordinate Clause is a Subject or an Object, it is termed a Noun-clause.

When the Subordinate Clause stands in the place of an Adjective, it is termed an adjective-clause.

An attempt is sometimes made to divide sentences of this kind into two parts: (1) Principal Clause, (2) Subordinate Clause. For instance, in the sentence, I saw that something was wrong,' Professor Bain (English Grammar, p. 157) makes the following division:

86. But the clause that something was wrong' is the object of the verb 'saw.' The clause is comprised within the whole Compound Sentence, like a wheel within a wheel. In fact, the entire sentence, 'I saw that something was wrong,' occupies the position of a Principal Sentence, and the Subordinate clause' that something was wrong' forms part of the whole.

In dealing with Correlative Sentences, it was easy to distinguish two separate clauses, which we termed the Principal Clause, and the Accessory Clause. But here we recognise no Principal Clause. We do not object to call the whole Compound Sentence a Principal Sentence; with the understanding, that it comprises, or involves within itself, one or more Subordinate Clauses, whether they be Noun-clauses or Adjectiveclauses.

1. The Noun-clause.

87. The Noun-clause occupies the place, and follows the construction of a noun, in the whole compound sentence, of which it forms a part.

1. As a subject-nominative :

That he said so is certain.

2. As a predicate-nominative:

The result was that they came forward.

3. As an objective:

His friends expect that he will succeed.

4. As a noun in apposition:

The idea that money alone is wealth, has been the cause of great mistakes.

Sentences of this kind may be easily deduced from two Co-ordinates:

His friends expect that he will succeed.
First Co-ordinate: He will succeed.
Second Co-ordinate: His friends expect that.
His friends expect that [he will succeed.]

See Diversions of Purley, i. 83–97.

88. There are two kinds of Noun-clauses:

1. Those that contain a direct statement.

2. Those that involve an indirect question.

1. Those Noun-clauses which contain a direct statement, are generally introduced by the word that, commonly called a conjunction, though originally it is a demonstrative pronoun. For example, if my friend intends to visit me, and I am aware of the fact, I say,

I know that he will come,

where that implie the fact,' 'the following truth,' namely, 'his intended coming.' Similarly, 'I know that he is returned' may be resolved into two sentences, 'He is returned,' 'I know that fact.' See Key, Latin Grammar, § 847, note.

And so completely is that regarded as introductory of the

following sentence, that we often omit the conjunction, and say, 'I know he will come.'

In Greek and Latin it is customary to give these sentences another turn, by which the subject-nominative of the Subordinate clause is made the subject-accusative, and the verb is thrown into the infinitive mood.

I know that he will come. Scio illum venturum esse.

89. 2. Noun-clauses involving an indirect question. These are introduced by relative pronouns, or by relative adverbs (otherwise termed 'conjunctive adverbs'), as when, where, how, and some others. For example ::

I know who you are.

I understand what you want.
I know when he will come.
I see how he did it,

2. The Adjective-clause.

90. The Adjective-clause follows the construction of an adjective, and may qualify any noun or pronoun in the Compound Sentence. Hence it may be attached to the subjectnominative, to an objective, or to any substantive which occurs in phrases qualifying the predicate-nominative, or the predicate-verb.

1. With the subject-nominative:

The man, who loves his country, will never speak ill of her to strangers.

He is thrice armed, that hath his quarrel just.

The house, that Jack built, is wonderful.

The people, with whom you associate, are agreeable.
Hard was the hand that gave the blow.

Red were those lips that bled.

91. 2. With the predicate-nominative :

This man was the friend who promised to help us.
This is the letter which he wrote.

Spring is the time when blossoms come.
Ireland is the country where I dwell.

3. With an objective:

They want a leader that knows the way.
He lost all the money which he had saved.
I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows.

4. With a noun or pronoun in qualifying phrases :
She came at the moment when all was over.
They lived on the estate that their father left.
He went with those who planned the expedition.

Obs. Sentences of this kind may be deduced from the Coordinate form. Thus, 'The house that Jack built is wonderful.' First Co-ordinate: That house is wonderful.

Second Co-ordinate: That house Jack built. Again,' Hard was the hand that gave the blow.' First Co-ordinate: Hard was that hand.

Second Co-ordinate: That hand gave the blow.

The Adjective-clause is introduced by the relative pronouns who, which, that, or by the relative adverbs when, where, whither, how, &c.

92. Professor Bain makes a distinction in the use of the relatives 'that,' 'who,' and 'which.' To some this distinction may seem novel; but he contends that it is the revival of an old and idiomatic usage. According to his view (English Grammar, Preface, p. iv.) the distinction between that' on the one hand and who' and 'which' on the other, was clearly perceived by our idiomatic writers up to the beginning of the last century; but owing to an unfortunate misapprehension as to the English idiom of throwing a preposition to the end of a clause, the relative' that' is now very little employed in book composition, 'who' and 'which' being made to serve in its stead.

Hence, he says (English Grammar, p. 159), 'The Adjective Clause, being by its nature restrictive, should be introduced by the restricting relative "that" or its equivalents, rather than by "who" or "which the relatives more properly adapted for co-ordination. "The man that is wise" (meaning the same as "the wise man") is preferable to “ the man who is wise."

"This construction (Grammar, p. 23) avoids ambiguities that often attend the indiscriminate use of "who" and "which" for co-ordinate and for restrictive clauses. Thus when we say,

his conduct surprised his English friends, who had not known him long,

we may mean, either

(1) that his English friends generally were surprised (the relative being in that case co-ordinating);

or, (2) that only a portion of them—namely, the particular portion that had not known him long-were surprised.

In this last case the relative is meant to define or explain the antecedent, and the doubt would be removed by writing thus

his English friends that had not known him long.'

93. This suggestion is worth considering, and may advantageously be applied in cases where ambiguity is likely to