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143. In some instances, we find the preposition of used, where we might expect a noun in apposition; as 'The city of Rome' for 'The city Rome,' Urbs Roma.

We may term this the apposition genitive. We find it used,

1. In geographical descriptions: as,

The city of London.

The town of Liverpool.
The borough of Wigan.

But we are not consistent; for we say, ' The river Thames,' not 'The river of Thames;' and 'The Hill of Howth,' but 'Mount Lebanon.'

2. In descriptions of persons or things: as,

A rogue of an attorney.

A monster of a man.
A brute of a dog.

A rag of an umbrella.

We employ this second construction chiefly in a humorous or satirical sense; but in Welsh the construction is idiomatic, and employed generally. Thus Rowland tells us, (Welsh Grammar, § 411) 'two nouns are set in apposition by means of the preposition o (of'), when the one describes the character, occupation, &c. of the other; and when one of them may be converted into an adjective, or, in fact, frequently omitted; thus gwr o brophwyd, a man of a prophet,' is equivalent to gwr prophwydol, a man prophetic,' or simply prophwyd, a prophet.'

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I do not venture to say that this idiom has come in from the Welsh; but I certainly think that the British element in our history and our language demands more careful attention than it has yet received.

144. We have, then, five constructions of the genitive case in English:

1. The form in 's: Milton's poem.

2. With the preposition of: The life of Dryden.

3. A combination of the two: A work of Cicero's.

4. By juxta-position: A many people, (for 'many' is an old noun, signifying a 'multitude').

5. By apposition: The city of Paris. Compare the French, La ville de Paris.

145. With regard to meaning we observe that the genitive has a double force.

1. The subjective genitive, as it is termed, indicates some quality of the noun on which it is dependent; and as, among other qualities, it denotes possession, this kind of genitive has given rise to the term possessive case, and is generally expressed in English by the form 's; as 'the master's house.'

2. The objective genitive expresses the object of some feeling or action. It is commonly rendered in English by the preposition of;' as 'the love of fame;' 'the pursuit of wealth.' In fact, if the governing noun were turned into a verb, the objective genitive would be turned into the objective (or accusative) case. For example, he has a love of fame' is equivalent to 'he loves fame.' Sometimes the same relation is expressed by other prepositions: as 'longing for rest,' 'remedy for pain,' 'love to virtue.'

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146. As the form in 's, called the possessive case, chiefly denotes possession, its use is generally limited to words which denote persons or living beings: as,

The master's house.

The lion's mouth.

But in older English, and in poetry, the form is often applied to words denoting things or abstract notions: as,

The house's beauty.

Sin's poison.

With pronouns, the form in 's is often used objectively: for instance, his stands for' of him :' thus,

His virtues

Will plead like angels, trumpet-tongued, against
The deep damnation of his taking off.

Macbeth, i. 6.

147. When a compound name is used, the final word alone takes the termination 's: as, 'the Bard of Lomond's Lay.'

If two nouns used in apposition are thrown into the genitive case, and if the principal noun comes last, that noun alone takes the termination 's: as,

For thy servant David's sake.

Psalm cxxxii. 10.

But when the principal noun comes first, and the apposition noun follows, we find diversity of usage. Some would employ the form 's with the last word: as,

1. I bought it at Tonson the bookseller's.

Others would prefer:

2. I bought it at Tonson's the bookseller.

While others would repeat the form with each word: as, 3. I bought it at Tonson's the bookseller's.

The first and third examples are the most defensible in theory; for in the first case, we may regard 'Tonson the bookseller' as one compound term; and the 's follows regularly at the end. In the third case, we have an ordinary instance of apposition.

But the second case, though the least defensible in theory, is the most convenient in instances where two or more words in apposition follow the principal possessive: as,

I bought it at Tonson's, the bookseller and stationer.

148. When two possessives are used, coupled by the conjunction and, we have to consider whether the governing noun applies to them jointly or severally.

1. If the governing noun applies to the possessives jointly, it is sufficient to affix the form 's to the final posses sive: as,

William and Mary's house.

The King and Queen's marriage.

2. But when the governing noun applies to the possessives severally, the form 's should be attached to each :

The Parliament's and the King's forces approached each other.

The work was neither Cicero's nor Seneca's.

So, too, when any words intervene, throwing a pause upon the first possessive, the form 's should be used in both in

stances: as,

These are William's, as well as Mary's books.

149. The construction involving the form which we call the 'infinitive, or gerund in -ing' demands careful consideration. Take, for example:

What is the meaning of this lady's holding up her fan? These are the rules of Grammar, by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes.

Some grammarians call this form in -ing a Gerund; others a Participle; and others, a Verbal, or a Verbal Substantive. Dr. Lowth says (English Grammar, p. 125):-'The participle with an article before it, and the preposition of after it, becomes a substantive, expressing the action itself which the

verb signifies; as, "These are the rules of Grammar by the observing of which you may avoid mistakes.' Or it may be expressed by the participle or gerund; "by observing which;' not, "by observing of which; "nor, "by the observing which;" for either of those two phrases would be a confounding of two distinct forms.'

He then states the principle on which this rule is founded: a word which has the article before it, and the possessive preposition of after it, must be a noun; and if a noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not have the regimen of a verb.'

But Dr. Lowth seems to confound a 'noun' with a 'substantive;' the infinitive mood of a verb may be used substantively, yet without losing its powers as a verb. Beside, the prefixing of the article does not turn any part of a verb into a substantive; but, on the contrary, because it is used substantively, it is capable of taking the article.

Hence all the four forms may be defended:
1. by observing which.

2. by the observing of which.
3. by observing of which.

4. by the observing which.

1. We have the simple infinitive, or gerund, governing the objective 'which.'

2. The infinitive, with the article, is used substantively,

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and followed by the genitive, of which.'

3. The infinitive, without the article, is used substantively, and followed by the genitive, of which.'

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4. The infinitive is used substantively, with the article, but still retains its powers as a verb, and governs the objective, which.'

POSITION.

150. The form in -s precedes the governing word: as 'the father's house,' the master's dog.' In German the corresponding form may follow the governing noun: as 'ein Werk Schiller's,' literally 'a Work Schiller's,' where we say, 'a work of Schiller,' or 'a work of Schiller's.' And it is curious that both these English phrases are questioned; some grammarians doubt the one, and some the other. One says that a work of Schiller' is absolute nonsense, and not English. Another maintains that' a work of Schiller's' is a blunder,

and not to be allowed. I have already stated my opinion, that a work of Schiller's' has arisen from a confusion of the two forms; and it certainly is warranted by the authority of good writers. On the other hand, I see no reason to condemn a work of Schiller,' meaning 'a work written by Schiller.'

151. But as we have two forms in English, we should be careful to avail ourselves of this advantage, in order to guard against ambiguity of expression.

For example, where Hume says, 'They attacked Northumberland's house, whom they put to death,' we observe a little awkwardness in that form of expression. It seems better to say, 'They attacked the house of Northumberland, whom they put to death.' For although the gender of the pronoun shows that Northumberland is referred to, yet we are so accustomed in English to find the antecedent coming immediately before the relative, that the position of 'house' between the two makes us fancy that there is something wrong. It is a good rule that, if we can make any alteration which will prevent the attention of the reader from being called to the mere form of words, we ought to avail ourselves of the privilege, and to fix his attention, not upon the sign, but upon the thing signified.

OBJECTIVE.

152. We saw, § 13-20, that there may be various kinds of Objectives in a sentence; and we distinguished three; the Primary and Secondary Objectives, and the ComplementObjective.

As an example of the care required to distinguish Objectives, we may take the following passage :—

Lafeu. They say miracles are past; and we have our philosophical persons to make modern and familiar things supernatural and causeless. Hence it is that we make trifles of terrors; ensconcing ourselves into seeming knowledge, when we should submit ourselves to an unknown fear.-All's Well, ii. 3.

In some editions the words are pointed thus :- -' to make modern and familiar things, supernatural and causeless.' But the meaning is just the contrary: 'to make modern and familiar, things supernatural and causeless.'

The word 'modern' is used in the literal sense of 'daily,' 'trivial,' 'common-place,' and the meaning is 'to modernise

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