words "from," "to," point out the course or direction, of the journey.

CONJUNCTIONS are words used to join sentences, clauses of sentences, or single words, and to show the connexion between the ideas which they express. Thus in the sentence, "Thou and he are happy, because you are good," the conjunction "and" joins the words "he; thou," and the conjunction "because" connects the assertion, "you are good," with the former one, "Thou and he are happy," and shows, that the goodness of the persons in question, is the reason or cause of their happiness.

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This class of words is distributed into the Copulative and the Disjunctive; the former serving to connect words or sentences, without any opposition, as "and," "because," "if;" and the latter implying opposition, in a greater or less degree, as Though he slay me, yet

will I trust in him."

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INTERJECTIONS are words thrown in, as the name implies, between the regular parts of a sentence, to express a powerful feeling. Thus "ah!" "alas!" indicate violent grief; pish!" "" tush!" express contempt; "lo!" "behold!" "hark!" are used to call the attention, and to mark the sense which the speaker has of the importance of the subject. There are many other interjections, which need not be enumerated.

CHAPTER III.

A GENERAL VIEW OF THE GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE-continued.

Ir has been already observed, that Syntax, the third general division of grammar, relates to the combination of words into sentences, and the rules or usages to be observed in thus combining them.

In taking a brief review of the rules of Syntax, we may with advantage follow the order of the parts of

speech, though a different arrangement has been generally adopted.

With regard to the ARTICLES, we are taught, that a or an can be joined only to nouns of the singular number, as "A book," "A thousand," while the can be connected with nouns either of the singular, or of the plural number, as "The book," ""The books." We are required also, to consider the influence, which the use or omission of the articles has on the import of a passage. How great a difference, for instance, is there between "He paid little attention to this statement," and "He paid a little attention to this statement." The former remark would be naturally used by a person, who wished to accuse another of neglect and indifference: the latter by a person wishing to repel the charge, or at the least, to extenuate it. In the following sentence, "The gay and the insinuating are often destitute of tender emotions," two classes of persons are mentioned; while a different form of speaking, "The gay and insinuating are often destitute of tender emotions," naturally suggests the idea of one class, admitting of being characterised as both gay and insinuating. Such examples could be multiplied, did not the limits of this chapter require brevity of illustration.

In respect to the application of Syntax to SUBSTANTIVES, we have the rule, that in expressions which imply property or possession, as "My father's house," "Man's happiness," the possessive case is properly introduced. These expressions, however, admit of being altered to "The house of my father," "The happiness of man ; and there are cases in which the use of the preposition "of" with its proper case, is preferable to the employment of the English possessive, as being more conducive to clearness, or to harmony of sound.

The only direction affecting ADJECTIVES, is, that every word of this class must have some substantive, either expressed or implied, to which it shall refer.

The proper application of the PERSONAL PRONOUNS, is a subject which does not require any particular rule, and which becomes exceedingly clear if it is remembered, that "I" refers to the person speaking; "thou" or

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""she,"

'you" to the person addressed; and that "he,' "it," which equally belong to the third person, differ in that the first is masculine, the second feminine, and the third neuter.

The use of the RELATIVE PRONOUNS, "who," "which," that," is a subject of considerable importance to Syntax, and one respecting which several rules are usually given. It has been already noticed, that "who" can be applied only to persons, and "which" only to irrational animals, and objects destitute of life; but that the third of the above pronouns, admits of being used in relation either to persons or to things.-Each of these relatives may be made to form the nominative to a verb ; and in this case, it is considered to be of the same number and person as its antecedent, or the word going before it, to which it relates. Thus in the clause, "Thou who observest equity," the term "thou" forms the antecedent to the relative "who,"-this relative is the nominative to the verb "observest,"-and this verb is made of the second person and singular number, because its nominative "who" is considered to take the person and number of the preceding word "thou." This use of a relative as the nominative to a verb, is only one method of construction which it admits. It may be put in any other case, and placed under the government of some other word, as in the sentence, "God, to whom we are indebted for all our blessings, and whom it is our highest interest to love and to obey." Here the relative "whom," in the second clause, is placed after, and is governed by, the preposition "to;" and in the third clause, it is governed by the verbs, "love," "obey."-The right position of the relative pronouns, requires the constant attention of every student of composition; for there are few particulars that more intimately affect the clearness and the strength of

a sentence.

In regard to the ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, there are two regulations which merit our attention :-that some of them, as "each," "every," "either," can be connected only with singular substantives, because they distinctly intimate one person or thing;—and that the terms "this"

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and "that" have a plural form, "these" and "those," which must be invariably employed with plural substantives. Thus we say "each person, 'every man," never "each persons, every men; and we say also, "this book," "these books,' ""that transaction," "those

transactions."

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The proper use of VERBS is a subject on which several of the rules of Syntax directly bear. A verb must be regarded either as agreeing in number and person, with some word or words, or as exerting a government over other words, that form its object. In respect to the agreement of verbs with substantives and pronouns, we have the following leading rules :

A Verb must be of the same number and person as its nominative case; as "I speak," "Thou speakest," "He speaks," "They speak."

When two nominatives singular belong unitedly to one verb, the verb must be plural; as "Socrates and Plato were eminent philosophers.'

When a verb relates to each of two singular nominatives separately, it must be of the singular number; as "He or his brother has done this."

"the crowd,"

"the

A singular noun of multitude, as fleet," "the council," should have a verb singular, if it suggests the idea of one body acting in union, but a verb plural, if it conveys the idea of many individuals acting separately; as "The meeting was large," "The council were divided in their opinions."

Respecting the government of Verbs, we have the two subjoined rules, of a very simple character, and admitting of being easily remembered :-Active verbs govern the objective case; as "I esteem him," ," "He pities her." One verb may govern another in the infinitive mood; as "He purposes to write."

With regard to the use of ADVERBS, the only point concerning which any direction can be given, is the position which they should occupy; and this must evidently be determined by a regard to the clearness and the easy flow of the sentence. Were we to say, declaration is explicit sufficiently," the ear would revolt at such an arrangement of the words, and the correction,

"This

"This declaration is sufficiently explicit," would naturally suggest itself. The phrase, "He nobly acted," although it would distinctly convey the intended idea, would yet be inharmonious and repulsive: but a transposition of the words, "He acted nobly," renders it more expressive, and very agreeable to the ear. Both the arrangements, "It was carefully examined," and "It was examined carefully," are admissible and elegant; but there may occur cases, in which the one of these phrases would be preferable to the other.

Respecting PREPOSITIONS, we have the simple but highly important rule, that they always govern the objective case; as "She is displeased with him," "He

sent to her."

CONJUNCTIONS are not to be regarded as governing either substantives or verbs; but it is an important observation, that they usually connect the same moods and tenses of verbs, and the same cases of nouns and pronouns. There is an obvious impropriety in saying, "The profession of friendship, and to act differently, must show an utter want of principle; " for although the infinitive "to act," in the second clause, is used as a substantive, yet it is quite irregular to associate this infinitive with the substantive "profession," by the copulative "and." We should certainly say, "To profess friendship, and to act differently, must show an utter want of principle."

The outline which has now been given of the Etymology and Syntax of the English language, will afford a view of its structure and usages, and will remind the student of those points, which have the most important influence on composition. A distinct treatise on English Grammar, containing minute explanations of the various topics which the study embraces, should be possessed by all who aim at mental cultivation; but a general review of these topics, with an arrangement of the rules of Syntax, more suited, perhaps, than that generally adopted, to assist the memory, may prove at once pleasing and instructive.