on the subject of slavery, and the only principle of the other was a temporary evasion. The "great struggle of 1850" was an affair of offices and sectional advantage, not of political principle. With the end of the war in 1848, real political history is suspended, the question of slavery in the territories being in the air, until the Kansas-Nebraska Act brings an issue between two real political principles: the Republican doctrine of Congressional prohibition of slavery in the territories on the one side; on the other, the doctrine wrought out by the logical mind of Calhoun, of Congressional protection of slavery in the territories.1 Alexander Schuster THE CRITICAL ESSAY ON THE SOURCES OF INFORMATION. BY THE EDITOR. "HE official publications of the government under the Constitution, which record its political progress and development, are the following: Thomas B. Waite's State Papers and public documents of the United States [from 1789], exhibiting a complete view of our foreign relations.2 The compilation of what is known as Peter Force's State Papers (edited by W. Lowrie, M. St. C. Clarke, and others) have been ordered by Congress at different times since 1831, in two series of 21 and 17 volumes each, making 38 volumes in all.3 There was copyrighted in 1834 what purports to be vol. i. of a History of Congress; exhibiting a classification of the proceedings, March 4, 1789, to March 3, 1791 (Philad., 1843). It is not known that more was published. The Annals of Congress of Joseph Gales and W. W. Seaton were published at Washington between 1834 and 1856, and include the debates and proceedings of Congress from 1789 to 1824, with the more important documents and laws, making forty-two volumes. Gales was a very competent reporter. The title was then changed to a Register of Debates 1 The popular vote has no constitutional influence on Presidential elections, but is given merely as an approximation to the voting strength of parties. It can be no more than an approximation, for in some States the lowest vote is reported, in others the vote for the highest elector on the list, in others the average. The figures of Spofford's American Almanac are used. Until about 1824, electors were so largely chosen by the legislatures that no reliable record of the popular vote is available. 1824: Jackson, 155,872; Adams, 105,321; Clay, 46,587; Crawford, 44,282. 1828: Jackson, 647,231; Adams, 509,097. 1832 Jackson, 687,502; Clay, 530,189. 1836: Van Buren, 761,549; all the opposition 736,656. 1840: Harrison, 1,275,017; Van Buren, 1,128,702; Birney, 7,059. 1844: Polk, 1,337,243; Clay, 1,299,068; Birney, 62,300. 1848: Taylor, 1,360,101; Cass, 1,220,544; Van Buren, 291,263. 2 The series was begun by order of Congress in 1816, and consists of twelve volumes (Boston, 1817-1819), extending to 1818. The third is the last edition. Cf. Boston Athenæum Catal., p. 3062. 3 They have satisfactory indexes, and are di vided thus: Foreign relations, 1789-1828, in six volumes. Military affairs, 1789-1838, in seven volumes. in Congress, which extended to twenty-nine volumes. The speeches of Congressmen were revised by themselves. It carried the record from 1824 to 1837. After 1833, the accredited report of Congress is The Congressional Globe, containing the debates and proceedings (Washington, 1834-1873), which began with the twenty-third Congress and included the forty-second, making 110 volumes in all, with indexes by sessions. It was conducted by Francis P. Blair and J. C. Rives, and later by Rives alone, and by others. The speeches are revised by the speakers, and the laws are reported in an appendix of each session. It is well known that speeches not delivered were often included in its reports, and Hudson (Journalism in the United States) affirms that its records were not always trustworthy, the soberer after-thought of speakers obscuring or transforming what was actually said.1 The ordinary recourse for the debates of Congress is Thomas H. Benton's Abridgment of the Debates of Congress, 1789-1850, from Gales and Seaton's Annals of Congress; from their Register of Debates; and from the official reported Debates by John C. Rives (N. Y., 1857–1863), in 16 volumes, with an index in each volume. This publication may be well supplemented by another, involving much more his own personality, his Thirty Years' View, or a History of the working of the American Government, 1820–1850 (N. Y., 1854-56), in two volumes, chiefly taken from the Congress debates, the private papers of Jackson, and speeches of Benton, with his actual view of men and affairs.8 The Senate sat with closed doors till February 20, 1794.* Although its Legislative Journal was printed from 1789, and for the period (1789-1815) was reprinted in 1820-21, in five volumes, and its Executive Journal (1789–1829) was printed in three volumes, we had no record of its earliest debates, before the notes made by one of its members, William Maclay, of Pennsylvania, recently appeared as Sketches of debate in the first senate of the United States [April 24, 1789, to March 3, 1791], edited by George W. Harris (Harrisburg, 1880).5 The Journal of the House of Representatives, 1789-1815, was reprinted (1826) in nine volumes, with an index in each. This may be supplemented for the earlier part of the time by Thomas Lloyd's Congressional Register, or Proceedings and Debates of the first House of Representatives (N. Y., 1789–1791), in four volumes. The Journal of the House of Representatives is in print from 1789. Congress soon began to add other publications, called Senate Documents; Executive Documents, usually called State Papers; Reports of Committees of the House; Extra Fournals in trials of impeachment; and Bills. After the thirtieth Congress (1847–1849) these additional publications increased. 1 Cf. Benton, Thirty Years' View, i. ch. 43, on the Globe newspaper establishment. The Globe was succeeded in 1873 by the Congressional Record, printed at the government printing-office. Cf. R. W. Kerr's History of the Government Printing-Office, with a brief record of the public printing, 1789-1881 (Lancaster, 1881). 2 The debates at the time (1856) Benton undertook his work made a hundred volumes, and the essential trains of thought and action, as showing the development and motions of government, were buried in a mass of other temporary and extraneous matters. This was his warrant for a compilation which should omit routine business and private bills and avoid repetitions. He adds some notes and comments. 3 There are other reminiscent books: and political (1839-1847), N. Y., 1848, in 4 Cf. Life of Geo. Read, 532. For the reasons 6 It is the best account we have, and is adopted by Gales and Seaton. Van Buren (Polit. Parties, 191) calls the reports tolerably full C. W. March, Reminiscences of Congress (1813- and obviously fair," and regrets that Benton did 1834), N. Y., 1850. H. G. Wheeler, Hist. of Congress, biographical not adopt them. The Laws of the United States, as issued by sessions, began at Philadelphia in 1796, and was continued at Washington, making 35 vols. down to 1850.1 The principal collection of the Laws of the United States is an early one, compiled by J. B. Colvin, and authorized by Congress in 1814. The plan of the compilation was one suggested by Richard Rush, and adopted by Monroe, then Secretary of State.2 What is known as the United States Statutes at Large was published in Boston (1845, etc.), under the editing of R. Peters to vol. viii., and of G. Minot and G. P. Sanger, later, being authorized by Congress in 1845, and subsequently authenticated as competent evidence in all courts.8 4 In studying the course of political parties in the United States, the readiest bibliographical aid is W. E. Foster's References to the History of Presidential Administrations, 1789-1885 (N. Y., 1885); though many of the political biographies are ample in their foot-notes, and some of the general histories, which emphasize the political side." The best concise mapping of the whole course of American politics under the Federal government is Alexander Johnston's History of American Politics, which was originally p. 796, gives a convenient synopsis of all these extra documents, as does the Boston Athenæum Catal., p. 3065, etc. Indexes of the documents of the first eighteen Congresses were printed in 1823-24; and others, continuing the same, were added in 1832, 1840, and 1870. A General index to the Journals of Congress (Ist-10th, 1789 to 1809), with references to debates, documents and statutes, by Albert Ordway, was printed in 1880. The documents in the State Papers prior to 1823 are well indexed. An index to the Congressional documents after 1823 will be found in the Boston Public Library's Bates Hall Index, p. 815. There is a Synoptical index to the laws and treaties, 1789-1851 (Boston, 1860). 1 There were other contemporary editions of the early acts, as one at Boston, 1795, for the first and second Congress. 2 Vol. i.— the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, treaties, proclamations, etc. Vols. ii., iii., and iv. - the laws from 1789 to 1815. Vol. v. - lists of acts and resolutions, and various indexes. Vols. vi. and vii. brought the laws and treaties down to 1827, with an excellent index, by Samuel Burch, for the whole period, 1789-1827. It is sometimes found in separate binding. Vols. viii. to xi. continue the collection to 1848. 8 The collection begins with the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution, and then follow the public acts from 1789 to 1845, — these making volumes i. to V. Vol. vi. has private statutes at large, 17891845. Vol. vii. has Indian treaties, 1778-1845. Vol. viii. has treaties with foreign powers, 17781845, and a general index to the eight volumes. The series was continued beyond this, putting the public and private acts, treaties, and proclamations together in successive volumes. There are several lesser collections. Richard Folwell's Laws of the United States, containing also treaties, covers 1789-1797, in 3 vols. Judge Story edited in 3 vols. the Public and General Statutes of the United States, 17891827, with marginal references and index, and an appendix, with a fourth volume (1828-1836), edited by G. Sharswood (Philad., 1837). The different compends are :— Digest of the general Laws of the U. S. [17891856], with references to acts repealed and notes of decisions of the Supreme Court, by J. Dunlop (Philad., 1856). Analytical Digest of the laws of the U. S., 17891869, by F. C. Brightly (Philad., 1859-1869), in 2 vols. A Synoptical index to the Laws and Statutes of the U. S., 1789-1851, prepared by A. Dickins (Boston, 1852). A volume of Official opinions of the Attorneys General of the U. S. was printed in Washington in 1852. 4 On the necessity of parties, with particular reference to our early history under the Constitution, see John Adams's Works, x. 23, 48, 50; Sparks's Washington, x. 283. On the general proposition, see Smyth's Lectures on History, Bohn's ed., ii. 502; Lalor's Cyclo. Polit. Science, iii. 95; Crane and Moses's Politics (N. Y., 1884). 5 Like Von Holst and Schouler, Hildreth masses his references at the end of his sixth volume. There is a good list of the party literature from 1789 down, in the Boston Athenæum Catal., pp. 3148, etc. The distinctively political periodicals did not begin till a late day, like the American Whig Review (1844, etc.), and the Democratic Review (1841, etc.), but their articles sometimes are retrospective. Talcott Williams wrote the article on "Party government in the U.S." in Lalor's Cyclopædia, iii. 112. issued in 1879, and reached a revised and enlarged edition in 1882. It follows the course by administrations.1 The most conspicuous surveys of the subject, by virtue of the positions of the writers, are John Quincy Adams's Jubilee Discourse before the N. Y. Hist. Society, April 30, 1839, on the origin and progress of parties; and the posthumous Inquiry into the origin and course of political parties in the United States, by the late ex-president Martin Van Buren, edited by his sons (N. Y., 1867). The remarkably independent career of Adams lends interest to his views, and as an exponent of Democracy the Inquiry of Van Buren gives us the vindictive though somewhat mollified estimates of the Jacksonian Democracy.2 The latter book is not well constructed, and there is a recurrence of thought verging at times upon garrulity. 1 Mr. Johnston also furnished the articles on the political history of the United States in John J. Lalor's Cyclopædia of Political Science (Chicago, 1881, 3 vols.), and the principal ones are supplemented by useful references to documents, discussions, and narratives appertaining. There are some specific monographs worth noting M. W. Cluskey's Political Text-book (Washington, 1857, and later editions), a mass of documentary material, topically arranged. E. G. Tileston's Hand-book of the Administrations of the U.S. (Boston, 1871). M. C. Spaulding's Hand-book of Statistics of the U. S. (1789-), a record of Administrations and Events (N. Y., 1874). Edward Stanwood's History of Presidential Elections (Boston, 1884), with the campaign plat forms. Cf. E. W. Gilliam, "Presidential Elections historically considered," in the Mag. of American Hist. xiv. 189; the " Early Presidents," in Ibid., Feb., 1884; and "Unsuccessful Candi- The Presidential counts: a complete official rec- The votes for the Presidents will be found in the American Almanac, 1860, p. 198; Lalor's Cyclopædia, ii. 53, iii. 1001, and elsewhere. The series of Presidents, so far as they come within the scope of the present chapter, is: A few special subjects: On the veto power, see Lalor, iii. 1064; Lucy M. Salmon's Hist. of the appointing power of the president, no. 5 of the papers of the Amer. Hist. Association, 1886. Cf. "Appointments and Removals," in Lalor, iii. 586. The Caucus System, in Lalor, by Frederick W. Whitridge, and published separately in 1883 (Economic Tracts, no. 8); and by G. W. Lawton, The American Caucus System, its origin, purpose, and utility (1884), in Questions of the day. Lalor (ii. 1039) also has a paper on "Nominating Conventions." On the creation of Departmental Offices, see George N. Lamphere's United States Government, its organization and 4, 1849 3 yrs 11 mo's 1 year 4 mo's April 4, 1841 Native of. Virginia. Virginia. Mass. S. Carolina. N. Carolina. practical workings (Philad., 1880); Towle's Hist. 2 Cf. p. 74 upon Hamilton. Also C. C. Haze- 44 1 1 The principal of the more extended histories of later origin is Dr. J. D. Hammond's History of the political parties in the State of New York, 1789-1840. To the 4th enlarged edition (Buffalo, 1850, in two vols.)1 General Root has added notes. The author is a Democrat, but not a partisan, and the book is generally commended.2 To these may be added two well-known books of reference: Edwin Williams's Statesman's Manual, or more properly cited as The addresses and messages of the Presidents, 1789-1849, with memoir, etc. (N. Y., 1847-49, in 3 vols. ; new and enlarged ed. in 4 vols., N. Y., 1854), with each President's papers followed by a review of his administration and policy; and T. V. Cooper and H. T. Fenton's American Politics (Philad., 1882), in which book i. gives a history of parties, and book ii. has the party platforms, 1800-1880. The lives of leading statesmen,5 as well as the general histories, necessarily trace the 8 estimate of Alexander Hamilton led the son of that Federalist leader, James A. Hamilton, to counteract its unfavorable tone in his Reminiscences (N. Y., 1869), which contains also an examination of Jefferson's charges against Hamilton. Matthew Carey published his Olive Branch (Boston, 1815, Philad., 1818, and later) after the Federalists had begun to lose ground, in which he endeavored to show that there were faults on both sides, but he hardly pleased either extreme, though the book was sufficiently popular to pass through numerous editions. Carey acknowlCarey acknowledged himself an Anti-Federalist, though not necessarily an approver of all his party might do. His mediatory efforts consisted mainly in assaulting what he did not like in both parties, and not always temperately. He defends the Alien and Sedition laws, and abuses Jefferson for his mistakes. He thinks the New England Federalists plotted treason, and arrogated for themselves a' commercial importance which they did not have. (Cf. Duyckinck, i. 641.) 1 Hammond's Life and Times of Silas Wright (1848) is sometimes called a third volume. 2 C. K. Adams's Manual, p. 554. There are several other helpful books: Orrin Skinner's Issues of American Politics (Philad., 1873). Arthur Holmes's Parties and their principles, a manual of historical and polit ical intelligence (N. Y., 1859). The book unfortunately has no references or authorities. Walter R. Houghton's Hist. of Amer. Politics (non-partizan) embracing a history of the federal government and of political parties in the Colonies and United States from 1607 to 1882 (Indianapolis, 1883). Of less importance are:-L. J. Jennings's -L. J. Jennings's Eighty years of Republican Government in the U.S. (London, 1868; cf. P. W. Clayden in Fortnightly Rev., ix. 117). A. W. Young's American Statesman: Political history of the U. S., enlarged by G. T. Ferris (N. Y., 1877). "It might with some propriety be called," says C. K. Adams (Manual, 578), a history of public opinion on political questions." Joseph Brucker's Chief political parties in the United States, their history and teaching (Milwaukee, 1880). Lewis O. Thompson's Presidents and their Administrations (Indianapolis, 1873). William C. Roberts's Leading Orators of twenty-five Campaigns, with a concise history of political parties (N. Y., 1884). There is a paper on "The Origin and Character of the Old Parties" in the No. Amer. Rev., xxxix. 208. J. M. Cutts, in his Constitutional and party questions (1866), has a section on the origin, history, and state of parties. W. G. Sumner summarizes the history of politics 1776-1876 in the N. Am. Rev., Jan., 1876. W. C. Fowler gives an outline history of parties in their territorial relations in his Sectional Controversy (N. Y., 1868). Cf. Horace White on the relations of government to State sovereignty in the Fortnightly Review, Oct., 1876. S. M. Allen's Old and New Republican parties, 1789– 1880 (Boston, 1880). 8 Cf. Jeremiah Chaplin's Chips from the White House; or selections from the speeches, etc., of the Presidents (Boston, 1881). Addresses and Messages of the Presidents, Washington [to] Van Buren (N. Y., 1837). 4 Contents:- History of the political parties. - Political platforms. Great speeches on great issues. Parliamentary practice. — Existing political laws. Federal blue-book. Tabulated history of politics. 5 Greg (United States, i. 459) charges the "Amer. Statesmen Series" with expressing the views of a party "which conquered in the civil war as developed by conflict and exaggerated by victory, and written for a generation which has converted a confederacy into a consolidated sovereignty." Cf. on the other hand, on this same series, Goldwin Smith in the Nineteenth Century, Jan., 1888. The earlier, much more condensed sketches of leading statesmen in J. G. Baldwin's Party Leaders (N. Y., 1855) offers comparisons of party champions in the sketches of Jefferson, Hamilton, Jackson, Clay, and Randolph. We may trace the rivalry of leadership in the early administrations with due allowances in such representative books as Randall's Jefferson and J. C. Hamilton's latest Life of Hamilton, letting one correct the other. |