A. D. 1804.] CORONATION OF NAPOLEON. 513 claimed Napoleon Bonaparte Emperor of the French, and declared the throne hereditary in his male descendants. The new title was submitted to the ratification of the popular vote, with the result that 3,572,329 voters declared in its favour, and only 2,569 to the contrary. A few days later, General Moreau, Georges Cadoudal, and the other conspirators, were brought to trial: Pichegru had committed suicide on the 7th of April. Moreau was now condemned to two years' imprisonment, and sentence of death was passed on Cadoudal and eighteen others. In consideration of his former services, Moreau was simply exiled to the United States of America. Cadoudal and ten of his accomplices were executed, and the rest were pardoned by the Emperor. named Georges Cadoudal, the son of a miller, who | May, 1804, an organic senatus consultum prohad long been identified with anti-republican movements. As one of the leaders of the Vendéan insurrection, he had distinguished himself by courage and good conduct; and in later years he had openly opposed the power of Bonaparte, at the head of an army not inconsiderable either in numbers or in spirit. From time to time, this enterprising chieftain visited England, where he was greatly honoured by the French emigrants, who regarded him as the most capable man to carry out a plot which they were then meditating. The object was to assassinate the First Consul-a design which, base as it was, received the support of Pichegru, formerly one of the most distinguished generals of the Republic. An attempt was made to enlist Moreau in the same project; for the victor of Hohenlinden was known to entertain unfriendly sentiments towards Bonaparte. To his credit, he refused all active participation in the plot; but he was undoubtedly aware of its existence. Fouché discovered what was proceeding, and, on the 15th of February, 1804, Moreau, Pichegru, and Cadoudal, together with many others, were arrested and sent to prison. Before they could be brought to trial, the Duke d'Enghien, eldest son of the Duke of Bourbon, was seized by a party of French dragoons at Ettenheim, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, and rapidly transferred to Vincennes, near Paris, where he was tried, in the middle of the night, on a charge of being accessory to the conspiracy which the secret police had just unearthed. He had undoubtedly contemplated taking some steps against the existing order in France; but it was never proved that he had any connection with the designs of Cadoudal. In any case, his seizure on foreign territory was a gross and unpardonable outrage, and the inquiry into his alleged guilt appears to have been characterised by all the prejudice and unfairness of a foregone conclusion. He was shot in the fosse of Vincennes, at six in the morning of the 21st of March, 1804. It was shortly after this painful fact that Bonaparte took the final step in the realisation of his ambitious designs. It was considered, or at least assumed, that the Republican form of government did not offer sufficient security against the repetition of plots such as that which had just been discovered, and that a more fixed and stable constitution was indispensable. The proposal to change the Consular into an Imperial office, and thus to re-establish a form of monarchy in France, ostensibly originated with the Senate, and was afterwards accepted by the Legislative Chamber, without any dissentient votes. On the 18th of The coronation of Napoleon was performed at Notre Dame on the 2nd of December by Pope Pius VII., who, at the urgent request of the new potentate, came to Paris for that purpose. The crown having been blessed by the Pontiff, Napoleon himself took it from the altar where it lay, and with his own hands placed it on his head, as an indication that he received it from no earthly power but his own. He then crowned Josephine as Empress, and the heralds proclaimed the accession of " the high and mighty Napoleon I., Emperor of the French." The Cisalpine Republic was next transformed into a kingdom, and Napoleon, in compliance with a wish expressed by the local Senate, accepted the iron crown of Lombardy, under the condition that he was to appoint a distinct successor to the kingdom thus created. The ceremony of coronation was performed in the Cathedral of Milan on the 26th of May, 1805, when the French Emperor, again placing the crown on his own brows, exclaimed, "God has given it to me: woe to him who shall attempt to lay hands on it!" On the 7th of June, Napoleon opened in person the session of the Italian Legislative body; and, two days later, Genoa, at the request of its Senators, was united to France. The Republic of Lucea was soon afterwards changed into a principality, and given to Napoleon's sister, Elisa, and her husband Baciocchi, to be held by them as a fief of the French Empire. These acts were naturally calculated to arouse the jealous disapproval of the Austrian Emperor, who, as an Italian potentate himself, dreaded the constant advance of Napoleon's pretensions in the peninsula. By the Treaty of Lunéville, France had acknowledged the independence of the Italian and Batavian Republics; but the engagement was now openly violated, and, at the same time, Holland and Hanover were occupied by French troops. Both Russia and Austria protested against these acts; as a counter-demonstration, Francis II. of Germany declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria; but it remained for England to form a hostile combination against the new Empire. Pitt had again become Prime Minister in May, 1804, and it was the cherished object of his policy to form another Coalition, which he hoped would be more successful than the first. Whether with a view to force the English Government to show its hand, or from whatever motive, Napoleon addressed a letter to King George III. on the 2nd of January, 1805, in which, as in the previous communication, he expressed his earnest desire for peace. The British Cabinet replied in a despatch to the French Minister for Foreign Affairs, stating that England could not enter on any definite negotiations for peace until she had consulted with her Continental allies, and particularly with the Emperor of Russia. A quarter of a year later, a treaty was signed between King George III. and the Emperor Alexander, by which the two sovereigns bound themselves to employ every effort to form a general league of resistance to the encroachments of France. At a subsequent period of the same year, Austria joined the Coalition, and Napoleon immediately determined on an invasion of Germany. He was opposed by 80,000 Austrians under General Mack; but in a few weeks, after a series of trifling engagements, the Imperial commander was completely out-manœuvred by the consummate strategy of the French monarch, who, on the 20th of October, forced his adversary to capitulate at Ulm. Napoleon entered Vienna on the 13th of November, without opposition. During the autumn, Marshal Masséna drove the Archduke Charles out of Italy, and obtained possession of the Tyrol. Again the French had been brilliantly successful on land; but at the same time they suffered a defeat at sea, which was absolutely irremediable. On the 21st of October, Admiral Nelson gained the Battle of Trafalgar, when the combined French and Spanish fleet was so utterly vanquished that twenty vessels out of thirty-three struck their flags to the British. Four others were captured a fortnight later, and the naval power of France was almost annihilated by this stupendous blow. Again had Nelson exhibited those extraordinary gifts as a tactician, and those splendid qualities as a hero, which had endeared him to the whole British race. In the moment of victory, he was struck down by a shot from the enemy's shrouds; but he had lived to do his work, and it may be said, without exaggeration, that nothing remained for him to conquer. Though greatly staggered by the triumphant advance of Napoleon, the Austrians were not entirely crushed. New forces were raised in Hungary, and an army, composed of Austrians and Russians, advanced from Moravia. To encounter the latter, the French Emperor crossed the Danube on the 22nd of November. The objects of the Austro-Russians were to place themselves between the invaders and Vienna, and to effect a junction with the forces in Hungary. Detecting their design, Napoleon retired upon Austerlitz, where, on the 2nd of December, he gained one of the most brilliant and masterly of his victories. The combined legions of Austria and Russia were utterly shattered, and the two Emperors, who had witnessed the struggle from a neighbouring hill, fled with the disheartened fragments of their army. The result was a treaty of peace between France and Austria, which was concluded at Presburg on the 26th of December. All the Venetian States were now ceded to the kingdom of Italy, and the Electors of Bavaria and Wurtemburg, whose dominions were considerably enlarged, were elevated to the rank of kings, in recompense of the support they had given to France. Another consequence of the victory at Austerlitz was the death of the great English Minister, William Pitt, who expired on the 23rd of January, 1806, worn out by incessant labour and anxiety, but, in the last instance, literally killed by the sudden frustration of his hopes, and the ruin of the political combinations from which he had anticipated so much. The death of this illustrious statesman was followed by the formation of a Coalition Ministry, in which the Whigs under Lord Grenville united with the Tories under Lord Sidmouth. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs was given to Charles James Fox, the most distinguished of Pitt's opponents-a politician always favourable to revolutionary France, and sincerely desirous of peace. Communications were at once opened with Napoleon; but the overtures of the English Cabinet were declined by the French Emperor, and the ambition of that potentate acquired such alarming developments that a pacific policy on the part of Great Britain became impossible even to those who were most desirous of an accommodation. Fox expired on the 13th of September, 1806, and the Cabinet was left without its most brilliant and intellectual member. In the course of 1806, a war broke out between France and Prussia, which was attended by most lamentable consequences to the latter. Prussia had been irritated by many provocations; but the worst of all was the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, which was among the fruits of Napoleon's recent understanding with Austria, and which established his power over all the smaller States. As a consequence of this revolution, the old German Empire, originating with Charlemagne at the close of the eighth century, was dissolved, and, on the 6th of August, 1806, Francis II. formally renounced the dignity of Emperor of Germany and King of the Romans, which his family had held uninterruptedly for nearly four hundred years. In every direction, France was becoming the dominant power in Europe. At the beginning of 1806, a French army conquered the kingdom of Naples, compelling the Bourbon sovereign again to seek refuge in Sicily; and the crown was conferred by Napoleon on his brother Joseph. In June of the same year, Louis Bonaparte was created sovereign of Holland, and it seemed as if the Republican propaganda of former days was to be supplanted by a system of king-making, to the advantage of the Bonaparte family, and therefore to the indirect aggrandizement of France. Under these circumstances, Frederick William III. of Prussia, who had previously shown great hesitation as to the course he should adopt, considered that the time had arrived for taking decisive action. The fitting moment had in truth gone by; for Austria had come to terms with France, and Russia was discouraged by the reverse at Austerlitz. On the 1st of October, the Prussian Minister at Paris made a peremptory demand that all French troops should immediately quit Germany. This was of course refused, and Napoleon, rapidly marching into Prussia, defeated the army of that State at the memorable battle of Jena. The whole of Prussia was speedily at the feet of the conqueror, who, after entering Berlin, treated the people with such furious arrogance that the memory of his insults rankled in the German heart until the war of 1870-1. It was from Berlin that the French Emperor issued, on the 21st of November, 1806, those decrees against England by which the British Islands were declared in a state of blockade, and all trade or intercourse with them was forbidden under heavy penalties. This attempt to destroy British commerce was, however, wholly ineffectual; for England was mistress of the sea, and Napoleon had no power to enforce the prohibitions which his decrees sought to establish. Russia, though smarting under her recent discomfiture, could not view with complacency the destruction of a neighbouring Power. Alexander accordingly sent an army to the help of Prussia, 515 The and, in the latter days of November, Napoleon advanced towards the Vistula, to encounter this new adversary. He took up his quarters at Warsaw, entered into some insincere negotiations with the Poles, who supplied him with four regiments of cavalry, and awaited the attack of the Russian general, Beningsen, in the winter of 1807. battle of Eylau, in which the French were defeated with frightful slaughter, was fought on the 8th of February, and Napoleon retreated to the line of the Vistula. Here he recruited his forces, and again took the field in June, with more than 200,000 men. The Russians were repulsed at Friedland on the 14th, and Beningsen, retreating in good order, halted at Tilsit, close to the Russian frontier, on the 19th of the same month. A personal interview between Napoleon and Alexander followed on the 25th. The scene was a raft, moored in the middle of the river Niemen; and Napoleon, on being assured by his late opponent that he was ready to support him in his projects against England, for which country he professed a lively hatred, replied that in that case peace was already concluded. The treaty between France and Russia was signed on the 7th of July; that between France and Prussia followed two days later. By the latter arrangement, all the Prussian dominions between the Elbe and the Rhine were taken from Frederick William, and bestowed on Jerome Bonaparte, who received the title of King of Westphalia. That division of Poland which Prussia had acquired in 1772 was declared independent of its recent masters, and, under the designation of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, was assigned to the Elector of Saxony, who was permitted to assume the regal style and rank. All that was required of the Emperor Alexander was that he should adhere to what was called the "Continental System" of Napoleon-namely, the prohibitions with respect to England contained in the Berlin decrees-and that he should place himself at the head of a new Confederacy of the North, for the more complete realisation of those designs. To the treaty with Russia were appended secret articles, which permitted the Emperor Alexander to take Finland from Sweden, and bound him to make war on England, in case that Power should reject the peace. Russia at the same time concluded an armistice with Turkey, with which she had been at war in consequence of the Ottomans having allied themselves with France, withdrew her forces from Wallachia and Moldavia, and accepted the mediation of Napoleon. The only sufferer was Prussia, which lost nearly half of its possessions, and was reduced to a kingdom of the second order that the conqueror might be enabled to say, as in the case of Venice and Naples, "The House of Brandenburg has ceased to reign." * Intoxicated by his unparalleled successes, Napoleon returned to Paris in the course of the summer, and was received, as might fairly have been expected, with the wildest outburst of enthuasism. The Council of State hailed him almost as a demi-god, and the popular voice ratified the most extravagant of its panegyrics. It might have been supposed that the Emperor would have chosen this opportunity for establishing more liberal institutions in the government of the country. verse. In point of fact, he did the very reHis object was to make himself supreme at home as well as abroad, and he at once began a a series of encroachments on the very small amount of freedom left to the French people. The Tribunate of one hundred members, originally appointed *Heeren's Manual of the History of Europe. people bore quietly from Napoleon what, at the hands of Louis XVI., would have roused them to the bloody vengeance of the streets. The Peace of Tilsit led to a war between Russia and Sweden, which was not without some results of interest. Alexander of Russia, after many specious pretences of friendship, quarrelled with his brother-in-law, Gustavus IV. of Sweden, because the latter refused to act in accordance with the Continental System of Napoleon. In this unequal struggle, the Northern Power had the assistance of England, which, as in other instances, granted a large subsidy as well as military help. During the war, Russia received the support of Denmark, and the north of Europe was convulsed, in 1808 and 1809, by an exhausting and unnecessary conflict. Gustavus was forced to resign in the latter year, and his successor, Charles XIII., made peace in September, when the Continental System was adopted, and Finland, together with some other Swedish territories, passed into the hands of Russia. Growth of the Ambition of Napoleon-Ideas of an Universal Monarchy-Joseph Bonaparte at Naples-Attack on PortugalDesigns of Napoleon on the Western Peninsula-Deposition of the King of Spain-Commencement of the Peninsular WarSuccesses of the Spaniards-Defeat of Junot by Sir Arthur Wellesley at Vimiera (Portugal)-Unfortunate Expedition of Sir John Moore into Spain-Battle of Corunna-Renewed War of France with Austria-Gallant Defence of the Tyrol by Andrew Hofer-Napoleon at Vienna-Desperate Contests on the Danube, and Defeat of the Austrians at Wagram-The Treaty of Schönbrunn-Subjugation of the Tyrol-Quarrel of Napoleon with Pope Pius VII.-Annexation of the Papal States to the French Empire-Napoleon excommunicated-Entire Conquest of Spain by the French-Retreat of Soult from PortugalBattle of Talavera-Disastrous Expedition of the British to Holland-Ministerial Changes in England-Operations of Lord Wellington in the Peninsula--The Lines of Torres Vedras-Napoleon's Divorce from Josephine, and Marriage with the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria-Rupture with Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland--Seizure by Napoleon of the North German Coast-Bernadotte in Sweden-Further Progress of the Peninsular War-Renewed Disagreements with RussiaThe War of 1812-Advance of Napoleon on Moscow-Battle of Borodino-Moscow burned by its Inhabitants-Terrible Retreat of the French -Napoleon returns to Paris-Raising of a New Army-Alliance of Prussia and Russia-Disastrous Campaign of Napoleon in Germany-The Alliance joined by Austria-Crushing Defeat of the French at Leipzig-Disastrous Retreat from Germany-Breaking up of the Napoleonic Empire. NAPOLEON had gradually assumed, in the marvellous development of his power, a very different position from that with which he was apparently satisfied in the earlier days of his career. He was at first nothing more than the citizen-soldier of France, intent upon promoting the glory and establishing the fortunes of the young Republic. After the Nineteenth Brumaire, it was evident that he aimed at a personal predominance over the whole of France. The Empire followed as a matter of course; but it was not until after the victory of Austerlitz and the Peace of Presburg that the triumphant soldier developed in its fulness that system of general interference with the constitution of Europe which seemed to indicate the design of establishing an universal monarchy. Kingdoms began to be created for the benefit of the Bonaparte family; and that these subordinate channels. |