was believed by them to destroy their caste. It was not, however, until the 10th of May that the spirit of insubordination began to look serious. Delhi was afterwards besieged by the British, and re-taken by General Archdale Wilson in September. The flame of mutiny spread with fearful quickness, and the English troops in India were at first unable to do more than stand on the defensive until reinforcements could be sent to them. In many places the British garrisons were overpowered, and a number of frightful massacres, including women and children, were committed by the infuriated natives. The worst of these was at Cawnpore, in the Doab, where the merciless Nana Sahib, an adopted son of Bajee Rao, the Peishwa of Poonah, earned an undying infamy. In the first instance, this wretch pretended to support the British, but soon afterwards joined the rebels, besieged Cawnpore, and took that city on the 26th of June. The British general, Sir Hugh Wheeler, was deluded by a treaty, in which Nana Sahib promised the English troops and residents a safe-conduct to Allahabad. All the men, however, were massacred immediately after, and the women were slain on the 15th of July, when the Nana heard of Havelock's march from Allahabad, commenced on the 7th of the month. The Europeans in the Residency at Lucknow, a city of Oude, were besieged on the 30th of June by a body of the mutineers. The commandant, Sir Henry Lawrence, died of wounds five days. later; but the city held out until relieved by Havelock on the 25th of September.

In the mean

while, Havelock-one of the noblest heroes of that terrific struggle had defeated Nana Sahib at Futtehpore on the 16th of July, when the assassin escaped. The Nana is said to have died of fever in August, 1858; but his end has never been exactly known. Cawnpore was re-captured on the 17th of July, and mutinies were suppressed at Hyderabad on the 18th, and at Lahore on the 20th.

Lucknow, though temporarily saved by Havelock, was too weakly occupied to bid defiance to the rebels, who, being reinforced by fresh bodies of revolted troops, closed round the Residency, and again threatened the entire subjection of the place. By this time, however, Sir Colin Campbell (afterwards Lord Clyde)—an officer of great experience in Eastern warfare, and one of the commanders in the Crimea had been hastily sent out from England. Immediately directing his energies to the relief of Lucknow, he marched from Cawnpore on the 9th of November, with an army of 4,200 men, and before the end of the month had relieved the Residency, after storming the enemy's fortified positions. The garrison, together with the sick

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and wounded, the women and children, the money and treasure, were brought away by this small force of valorous soldiers in the face of 50,000 armed natives, and without any molestation on their part. Havelock died of dysentery, and no British soldier in India has ever left behind him a purer or grander reputation. For the present, Lucknow was left in possession of the rebels; but it was besieged by Sir Colin Campbell in March, 1858, and taken by assault on the 19th of that month. This was a great blow to the insurgents, whose cause soon began to decline. Many important actions, however, followed in various parts of India, and numerous laurels were gathered by Sir Hugh Rose, Sir Hope Grant, Sir Edward Lugard, and Generals Roberts, Whitelock, Mitchell, Horsford, and others. The Ranee of Jhansi, the most heroic of the rebel leaders, was killed on the 17th of June, 1858, in an action before Gwalior, which was re-taken on the 19th. No city or fortress of importance now remained in the hands of the mutineers. Oude was conquered at the beginning of 1859; yet Tantia Topee, a rebel of enterprise and courage, still remained in the field, and gave much trouble to the British forces. After several defeats, he was deserted by his followers, and, being taken on the 7th of April, was hanged on the 18th.

Some slight embers of the great insurrection continued to smoulder until near the end of 1859; but it had long been apparent that there was no power in India capable of withstanding the organised strength of England. Several of the native chiefs and princes, together with many of the Sepoys, gave their services to the British throughout the mutiny, and this fidelity was afterwards acknowledged by rewards and honours. On the other hand, the sovereign of Delhi, the last representative of the Great Moguls, was for his treachery transported to Pegu, where he died in 1862. One of the most important results of the mutiny was the transfer of India from the partial government of the Company to the undivided sovereignty of the Queen. This change was effected by an Act of Parliament which received the Royal assent on the 2nd of August, 1858. On the 1st of November in the same year, her Majesty was proclaimed throughout India, and since then she has received the title of Empress. The later history of India presents no features of sufficient importance to be here recorded ; but it may be observed, in general terms, that the Imperial Government of that magnificent dependency has been administered in a spirit of justice and clemency, which, it is to be hoped, has established a better understanding between the European and Asiatic races.

INCIDENT IN THE INDIAN MUTINY: LIEUT. DE KANTZOW CALMING THE SEPOYS AT MYNPOOREE

Holstein War; the Austro-Prussian War; and the Franco-German War. With the Peace of 1871 we close our labours, events since then being too recent to be described after the fashion proper to a work like the present. It is a lamentable

fact in the records of human nature that so much of history has reference to the deadly strifes of nations-conflicts which in many instances might have been avoided by a higher moral sense and more instructed reason. But it is satisfactory to remark that, during the period between 1859 and 1871, England was engaged in no European contest, nor even in any colonial struggle of great importance though the invasion of China (already narrated), and the expedition to Abyssinia in 1867-8, to avenge the ill-treatment of certain British subjects, must be classed with our minor wars. The annals of Great Britain during the twelve years referred to are for the most part confined to such facts as the several changes of Ministry, by which power was divided between the Liberals and Conservatives, though on the whole to the advantage of the former; the conclusion of a Commercial Treaty with France in 1860; the development of the Volunteer movement; the death of the Prince Consort on the 14th of December, 1861; the opening of the Great Exhibition of 1862, second in the series beginning with the brilliant success of 1851; the spread of Ritualistic practices in the Church of England, consequent on the High Church or Tractarian agitation of an earlier date; the distress in the cotton-manufacturing districts, caused by the American civil war; the cession of the Ionian Islands to Greece, in 1864; the laying of the Atlantic telegraphic cable in 1866; the Fenian agitation a little later; the Reform Act of the Derby-Disraeli Government, 1867; the disestablishment of the Irish Protestant Church by the first Gladstone Government in 1869; the alteration in the Irish landsystem in 1870; the abolition of compulsory Church-rates in 1868, followed in 1871 by the removal of all religious tests for admission to offices or degrees in the Universities; the re-organisation of the Army, with the abolition of purchase, spreading over the years from 1867 to 1871; and the establishment of compulsory education in 1870.

The Italian war of 1859 was a resumption of the struggle which had been suspended ten years before by the disastrous battle of Novara, and the other misfortunes of that time; but peculiar circumstances called it forth. The French Emperor, Napoleon III., had in his young manhood taken an interest in the freedom of Italy; but he had

done nothing to aid the cause since his accession to power, and his maintenance of an army at Rome, to support the Pope against the wishes of the patriotic party, gave great offence to all the active spirits of the peninsula. Several conspiracies against the life of the Emperor, in which Italians were the agents, startled Paris in successive years; and that of Felice Orsini, in January, 1858, when Napoleon narrowly escaped death by the explosion of three shells while going to the Opera, seems to have directed the attention of the French sovereign to the necessity of assisting the people of Italy against their Austrian oppressors. On the 1st of January, 1859, at the usual New Year's reception, Napoleon III., addressing the Austrian Ambassador, observed:-"I regret that our relations with your Government are not as good as formerly; but I beg of you to tell the Emperor that my personal sentiments for him have not changed." These words created great excitement throughout Europe, and the marriage of Prince Napoleon Bonaparte (the son of Jerome) to the Princess Clotilde of Sardinia, on the 30th of the same month, gave note of an approaching alliance with Victor Emmanuel. War broke out in April, on the 27th of which month the Austrians crossed the Ticino. The French entered Genoa on the 3rd of May, and the Austrians were defeated at Montebello on the 20th of the month, at Palestro on the 30th and 31st, at Magenta on the 4th of June, at Marignano on the 8th, and at Solferino on the 24th.

On these occasions, the French and Sardinian armies, which were under the personal direction of their respective sovereigns, fought side by side in the good task of liberating Northern Italy. At the same time, Garibaldi, at the head of the Cacciatori delle Alpi, created a useful diversion among the mountains and lakes of Lombardy and the Valtellina; and popular movements at Florence, Parma, and Modena led to the establishment of Provisional Governments acting in the interests of Sardinia, the champion of Italian nationality. Some of the Papal cities were equally agitated. Bologna and Ferrara voted their annexation to the little subAlpine kingdom; but at Perugia the movement was savagely repressed. The Allies crossed the Mincio on the 1st of July; an armistice between Austria and France was concluded on the 8th; and preliminaries of peace were signed at Villafranca on the 11th. The Emperor Napoleon had suddenly abandoned the war, in fear that Germany would enter the field on behalf of Austria, and that France would lose all her laurels before the terrible fortresses known as the Quadrilateral. The chief features of the agreement, effected at a personal

interview between the French and Austrian Emperors, were that the greater part of Lombardy should be ceded to France, by whom it was to be reconveyed to Sardinia; that Italy was to form a confederation under the Presidency of the Pope; that the princes of Tuscany and Modena should be reinstated; and that the revalted Legations (Bologna, &c.) should be restored to the Pope, but without foreign intervention. The actual Treaty of Peace was signed at Zurich on the 10th of November, 1859.

Victor Emmanuel and the patriotic party of Italy were enraged at the sudden frustration of their hopes; Cavour resigned, and Garibaldi exhorted the Italians to arm. But the Treaty did not prove so mischievous as was feared. The insurrectionary towns and provinces maintained their independence, and in March, 1860, were incorporated with Sardinia. In the spring, Savoy and Nice were made over to France, and the French troops quitted Italy. Sicily was now showing signs of agitation, and Garibaldi (who had previously retired from the Sardinian service) landed at Marsala on the 11th of May, with a thousand devoted volunteers, including some foreigners. The enterprise was more like a chapter of romance than a piece of history; but, though hazardous, it was entirely successful. On the 14th of May, Garibaldi assumed the office of Dictator; on the following day he defeated the Neapolitans at Calatafimi; on the 27th, he stormed Palermo; on the 20th of July the Royal troops sustained another reverse at Melazzo; and, ten days later, the Neapolitans agreed, by a convention, to evacuate Sicily. Having fully established his power in the island, Garibaldi, on the 18th of August, crossed the straits to the opposite shores of Calabria. His volunteers were now four times the number of those who started with him for Marsala ; but he had in front the main body of the Neapolitan army, and the road was beset with difficulties and possible dangers. Nevertheless, there were hopeful elements. Ferdinand II. ("Bomba ") had died on the 22nd of May, 1859, and his son, Francis II., continued the traditions of the house. Discontent, therefore, prevailed throughout the land, and Garibaldi was received with enthusiasm wherever he appeared.

The successful invasion of Sicily had frightened King Francis into a number of those unwilling concessions which despots make in the hour of peril, only to revoke them at the first convenient season. The Neapolitan people placed no reliance on his liberal professions, and the hour of his fall was close at hand. Reggio surrendered to Garibaldi on the 21st of August. From that sea-coast city to the capital itself, his advance was a triumphal

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progress; the navy, and a large part of the army, abandoned a failing cause; and the deliverer of the South entered Naples, without any troops, on the 7th of September, the day after that on which Francis had left for Gaeta, a strong fortress beyond the Volturno. At once assuming dictatorial powers, as in Sicily, Garibaldi released the political prisoners in the gaols, expelled the Jesuits, established trial by jury, and gave up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian Admiral, Persano. That portion of the army which remained faithful to the King rallied first at Cajazzo, and afterwards on the Volturno, but were utterly defeated on the 12th of September and the 1st of October. Victor Emmanuel entered the kingdom of Naples on the 11th of October, and the Sardinian forces then cooperated with the volunteers in finishing the war. A few weeks previously, there had been an insurrection in the Papal States, which the Sardinian troops entered on the 11th of September. The Pontifical army under Lamoricière was overthrown at Castelfidardo on the 18th, and Ancona was taken on the 29th. After achieving these results, General Cialdini, of the regular army, defeated the Neapolitans at Isernia on the 17th of October, and at Venafro on the 18th; but Gaeta did not surrender until the 13th of February, 1861. the meanwhile, a popular vote had conferred the Two Sicilies on Victor Emmanuel, who thus became the veritable King of Italy, though portions of the peninsula yet remained under distinct Governments. Garibaldi, acting against the commands. of his own sovereign, made two ill-judged and unsuccessful attempts to seize Rome-one in 1862, the other in 1867; but the Italian cause did not greatly suffer, and for a time the Liberator retired into private life in the island of Caprera.

Before briefly sketching the War of Secession in the United States, it will be necessary to glance over the previous history of that country from the point at which we last quitted it to the year 1861. President Madison was succeeded in 1817 by Mr. James Monroe, who is chiefly identified with what is called the "Monroe Doctrine," contained in the statement, "That the American continents, by the free and independent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonisation by any European Power;" and that any attempt to extend the principles of European government to America would be viewed in no other light than "as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition towards the United States." Mr. Monroe, like

* Annual Message of the President, Dec. 2nd, 1823.