extremes. This position was assumed by the Swiss reformer even before the posting-up of Luther's theses at Wittenberg, on the 31st of October, 1517. It is clear, therefore, that he did not arrive at his conclusions in consequence of the German movement, but obeyed, in common with Luther, an impulse which was then affecting many thoughtful minds.

A

The sale of indulgences made the same impression on Zwingli as on his contemporary. Franciscan friar of Milan, named Bernardin Samson, conducted this particular business in Switzerland, as Tetzel conducted it in Saxony; and his audacity exceeded even that of Luther's opponent. He told his auditors that a liberal outlay on indulgences would ensure them immunity for future sins-a doctrine which, to do it justice, has never been authoritatively declared by the Romish Church, and which was far in excess of what the agent had any right to preach. Scandalised by this monstrous promise, and by the whole system of trafficking in such exceptional privileges, Zwingli took his stand in the churchgate of the Abbey of Einsiedlen, and, supported by the abbot, and by Theobald, the economical administrator of the house, refused to admit the vendor of indulgences. His bold conduct drew the attention of the higher authorities to an abuse which they would probably have passed over in silence but for the reformer's initiative; and Samson was compelled to quit the diocese of the Bishop. He made a good harvest elsewhere, however, and, on leaving Switzerland in 1519, took with him, it is said, about 800,000 crowns. views of Zwingli, not merely on the immediate question of indulgences, but on many points of doctrine, were shared by some of the best thinkers of the time, who, by gradations indeed, but with extraordinary rapidity, arrived at all the chief conclusions of Protestantism. Erasmus, a native of Holland, then living at Bâle, agreed to a large extent with the reformers, but could not go with them to the length of denying the authority of the Pope. But, though a great scholar and an acute thinker, Erasmus was a timid man, fond of peace, and not at all ambitious of the honours of martyrdom, as he himself confessed.

The

lished a list of articles for discussion, the opinions embodied in which give so summary a view of the position even then taken up by the Swiss innovators, that it may be as well to quote a passage of some length. "It is an error," said Zwingli, "to assert that the Gospel is nothing without the approbation of the Church, and to value other instructions and traditions equally with those contained in the Gospel. The Gospel teaches us that the observances enjoined by men do not avail to salvation. The Mass is not a sacrifice, but a commemoration of the sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The power assumed by the Pope and the Bishops has no foundation in Scripture. God has not forbidden marriage to any class of Christians: therefore it is wrong to interdict it to priests, whose forced celibacy has become the cause of great licentiousness of manners. Confession made to a priest ought to be considered as an examination of the conscience, and not as an act which can deserve absolution. To give absolution for money is simony. Holy Writ says nothing of Purgatory: God alone knows the judgment which He reserves for the dead; and, as He has not been pleased to reveal it to us, we ought to refrain from indiscreet conjectures on the subject. The jurisdiction exercised by the clergy belongs to the secular magistrates, to whom all Christians ought to submit themselves. No person ought to be molested for his opinions; it is for the magistrates to stop the progress of those which tend to disturb the public tranquillity." From these sentences it will appear that, as early as 1523, Zwingli had departed widely from the most cherished doctrines of Rome. progress of his mind had been rapid, steady, and consistent; and, while preserving a far greater evenness of temper, he soon advanced to bolder conclusions than those of Luther.

The

The discussion, which took place before the Council of Two Hundred, was mainly between Zwingli on the one part, and Faber, the VicarGeneral of the Bishop of Constance, on the other. Stated briefly, the contention of the latter was, that in any case of doubt the doctrines of religion were to be decided by a General Council of the Church, to whose rulings every one should implicitly submit; while the former maintained that the Councils had often given contrary decisions, and were no more infallible than the Bishops and the Cardinals. Even the Fathers of the Church frequently disagreed with one another; so that God alone could determine what was the truth. At length, the assembled burghers and ecclesiastics came to the conclusion, "That Zwingli, having been neither

A.D. 1522.]

to preach the Gospel as before; that the pastors of Zurich and its territory should rest their discourses on the words of Scripture alone; and that both parties should abstain from all personal reflections." This was a very important decision for the reformers. It conceded the most essential part of their case, and showed how wide and general a reception the new principles had found. Nevertheless, the old forms of worship continued for the present to be observed; and when some men of extreme views pulled down a crucifix standing in one of the gates of Zurich, the offenders were arrested, and charged with sacrilege. The question thus raised led to a second conference, during which Zwingli argued that the worship of images was unscriptural. The Council adjourned its decision until the following year, but in 1524 ordered that all pictures, statues, relics, offerings, and similar ornaments should be removed from the churches of Zurich. Other cantons followed in later years; but portions of Switzerland remained faithful to the Romish traditions. The Mass was abolished in Zurich at the beginning of 1525, and the Lord's Supper was soon afterwards celebrated according to a form prepared by Zwingli.

While the Reformation in Switzerland was passing through its earlier stages, Luther was quietly working in the castle of Wartburg. Most people supposed that he had either been assassinated, or captured by his enemies; but, as we have seen, he was really in the custody of a friend, and turning his retirement to the most effective purposes.

Besides commencing his translation of the Bible, he wrote several treatises against auricular confession, monastic vows, clerical celibacy, and prayers for the dead. By the aid of the printingpress, then becoming a formidable power in all the most civilised European States, these writings were spread broadcast over the whole of Germany. It was in the North, however, that they produced the greatest results. Large numbers of monks quitted their convents, and married; the Augustinian friars abolished the Mass. It may seem extraordinary that after the condemnation of the new opinions by the Diet of Worms, and the sentence pronounced against Luther himself by the Emperor, those opinions should have been suffered to take root; but the fact is in some degree explained by the absence of the Emperor, who, shortly after the conclusion of the Diet, proceeded first to the Netherlands, and then to Spain, where he remained several years. The Imperial Government had been placed by him in the hands of his brother Ferdinand, who was so young as to possess little influence; and one of the principal personages in the

77

Council of Regency was the Elector Frederick of Saxony, the tried and faithful friend of the reformer. Indeed, the majority of the Council were favourably inclined towards the new views; so that no measures were taken against the propagation of opinions which so many were inclined to accept, or at least to tolerate.

The return of Luther to the world was determined, not by any persecution of his followers, but by the extreme and injudicious lengths to which some of those followers were endeavouring to carry the movement. A person named Carlstadt, who occupied the chair of Theology at Wittenberg during the absence of Luther, gave considerable scandal by marrying under circumstances of great parade and ostentation, and soon afterwards offended large numbers of persons by demolishing the images in the Church of All Saints, forbidding the elevation of the Host, admitting communicants without confession, and proposing that all books, except the Bible, should be banished from the University. It was likewise one of his theories that every one should do a certain amount of manual labour, either in the fields, or in the workshops of the city; and this injunction he followed himself, and induced many others to follow. Carlstadt had joined a number of fanatics, whose leader was a clothier named Storch, and one of whose principal members was a certain Thomas Münzer, who believed, or pretended, that he was favoured by visions and supernatural revelations, and who had Luther made numerous converts at Zwickau. received intelligence of these extravagances, and, fearing that the cause of religious reform might be ruined by such startling and impracticable novelties, quitted his retreat, and again appeared at Wittenberg. In pursuing this course, he unquestionably ran considerable risk; but he knew that he could now reckon on the services of many enthusiastic supporters, and to their faithfulness and valour he committed his liberty, and perhaps his life. His return to Wittenberg was in the early part of 1522, and his presence produced the desired effect. Preaching on eight consecutive days, he reassured the community, and restored the instinct of moderation which had for a time been destroyed, Yet he was unable either to persuade or intimidate the more fanatical of the religious innovators. Carlstadt denounced him as an idolater, because he still affirmed the real presence in the Sacrament (a view which Zwingli had abandoned), and disparaged him as a courtier, for living on terms of intimacy with princes. After a number of angry disputes, Carlstadt was banished from Saxony, as a person who

the period-and of a much later period too-was to import the utmost virulence into theological discussion; and we should not be justified in visiting any special condemnation on either Luther or his opponents.

In the formulation of his doctrines, Luther was greatly assisted by the learned, moderate, and gentle-hearted Melanchthon, Professor of Greek in the University of Wittenberg. The real name of this distinguished man was Schwarzerdt: Melanchthon was the Greek equivalent of that patronymic, the meaning of which, in English, is "black earth." Luther and Melanchthon became intimate and attached friends, and the greater scholarship of the latter enabled him to accomplish many purposes

monastic institutions, together with his abandonment of the monastic dress, followed in 1524. The abolition of the Mass created some tumult among those who could not so easily throw off all the old customs of the ancient faith; and it was not until Christmas Eve, 1524, that the reformer succeeded in establishing his new service. The German innovators were now usually called Lutherans, as those of Switzerland were termed Evangelicals. The two movements were simultaneous, but entirely distinct, and the Swiss reform, though really going farther than the German, was characterised by greater moderation. This is perhaps attributable to the circumstance that the government of the cantons was popular and feeble, and that the

the natural consequence was extreme bitterness in the conduct of the dispute.

Nevertheless, the Reformation made steady progress in the northern parts of Germany. In other directions it was not so successful, and in Bavaria, after a brief movement in its favour, the ruling authorities put a stop to all further development of Lutheran doctrines by an arbitrary exercise of power. They appear to have been alarmed by the extravagances of Carlstadt and the other fanatics, and it is not difficult to understand their fears when it is recollected that the enthusiasts aimed

the Lutherans, and the Apostolic See rewarded the fidelity of the former State by granting it several privileges. The triple crown had by this time passed from the brows of Leo X. to those of Adrian VI., an ecclesiastic of Utrecht, who had formerly been the preceptor of Charles V., and had recently acted as Regent in Spain during the absence of the sovereign in Germany. The death of Leo occurred on the 1st of December, 1521. His illness had been rapid, and his death came so suddenly that there was no time to administer the viaticum. As in the case of so many other Popes,