Earwig.

The old assumption that the earth consists of a molten fluid core with a cooled and hardened rind floating upon it, is inconsistent with the rigidity that astronomers have proved the earth to possess. But although the earth must be mainly solid, it is yet believed to be of a honey-combed structure, and that the cavities contain in many places lakes of molten rock, between which and the surface volcanoes are orifices of communication. Into these cavities, water sinking down through crevices from the ocean or the land must be constantly finding its way; and the steam thus generated exerts such enormous pressure as to force the molten matter to the surface, itself mingling and escaping along with it. When a mass of water is suddenly precipitated into a hot cavern, the explosion of steam will cause an earthquake concussion, and where there is no vent, may be sufficient to convulse and rend the superincumbent strata.

EARTHS, in chemistry, are a class of substances regarded by the alchemists and older chemists as elementary, and which are insoluble in water. The earths proper are now known to be compound, consisting of a metal in combination with oxygen. The list includes alumina, glucina, zirconia, thoria, didymia, lantana, ceria, yttria, terbia, erbia. They do not alter vegetable colors, are soluble in acids, and are precipitated from their solutions by ammonia, potash, or soda. The Alkaline Earths have already

been noticed. See ALKALIES.

EARTH-SHINE, the reflection from the moon of the light cast upon her by the earth, particularly noticeable in clear nights at the time of new moon, when sometimes the whole surface of the moon can be seen in ashy colored light. The earth serves the same purpose to the moon that the moon does to the earth; that is, the earth is the moon's moon, and would present to an observer on the moon the same phases that the moon does to us: but the earth would, to an observer from the moon, appear four times as large as the moon does to us. When it is new moon to us, it is full moon to an observer on the side of the moon facing the earth, and, as the earth is much the larger, it gives to the moon about 16 times as much light as the full moon gives to us. This light, reflected back to us, is known as earth-shine. It is really the light of the sun reflected by the earth to the moon, and by the moon back to the earth.

EARTHWORKS, in fortification, is a general name for all military constructions, whether for attack or defense, in which the material employed is chiefly earth. The word earthwork, however, has lately received a new importance, in reference to a discussion among military engineers, whether earthwork defenses generally are better or worse than those of masonry. The subject cannot be discussed here, but its general character may be indicated. The fracture of the Russian granite fortifications at Bomarsund, and the obstinate defense made within the earthen defenses at Sebastopol, led many writers, about the year 1855, to express a preference for earthworks instead of stoneworks. Mr. J. Fergusson (Portsmouth Protected, 1856) has especially distinguished himself by his advocacy of this view. The reasons urged are-that masses of earth can be more quickly and cheaply put up than masses of masonry; that in most places earth is more readily obtained than stone; that if an earthwork be knocked to ruin by balls and shells, it can be repaired in a very short time; and that the defenders are not exposed to so much injury as in masonry-works, where splinters of stone fly about in a perilous way. The late sir John Burgoyne, the leading military engineer in England of his day, combated these views. He contended, among other things, that as a given amount of cannonading will make a much larger breach in earthwork than in stonework, the latter is best fitted to prevent capture by assault. He insisted that earthworks should be regarded rather as temporary expedients than as purposed and permanent constructions; and he claimed the authority of continental engineers in support of this opinion. See further under FORTIFICATION.

EARTHWORM, Lumbricus, a genus of annelida (q.v.), of the order terricola. There are many species, all of them pretty closely resembling in characters and habits the common E. or dew-worm (L. terrestris), which is everywhere plentiful in Britain and throughout Europe, and is familiar to everybody. It has no head distinct from the body, no eyes, no antennæ, nor any organs external to the rings of which its body is composed, except minute bristles pointing backwards, of which each ring bears four pair, and which are of use in its locomotion. It sometimes attains to nearly a foot in length, and more than 120 rings have been counted in its body. The end at which the mouth is situated is pointed, and the tail is flattened, whilst the general form is cylindrical. The mouth consists merely of two lips, the upper lip elongated; there are no teeth nor tentacles, and the worm subsists by swallowing fine particles of the soil, from which its digestive organs extract the digestible matter, the rest being voided often in little intestine shaped heaps, called worm-casts, on the surface of the ground. The locomotion of the E. is effected by means of two sets of muscles, which enable it to contract and dilate its rings; its bristles preventing motion backwards, and the whole muscular effort thus resulting in progress; whilst the expansion of the rings, as it contracts the anterior segments, and draws forward the hinder parts, widens a passage for it through earth whose particles were close together before. Earthworms are thus of very great use, their multitudes continually stirring and loosening the soil through which they work their way; and moles, pursuing them to feed on them, stir and loosen it still more; whilst worm-casts gradually accumulate on the surface to form a layer of the

Earwig.

very finest soil, to which it is supposed that the best old pastures in a great measure owe their high value.

Earthworms do not often visit the surface of the ground, except during night, and when the ground is moist. In the evening, during or after rain, or in the morning, when the dew is abundant, they may sometimes be seen traveling about in great numbers. Both drought and cold cause them to retreat more deeply into the earth.-Their respiration is effected by means of little sacs, which communicate by minute pores with the external air. They are hermaphrodite, but mutual fecundation takes place by means of the thickened knot (clitellum) which is situated before the middle of their body. Their eggs often contain two embryos, and the young worms escape by a sort of valvular opening at the end.

Besides their usefulness in the improvement of the soil, earthworms are of importance as food for birds, fishes, etc. Their value as bait for fishes is well known to every angler. The instinct which prompts them to hasten to the surface, when, in quest of bait, the angler shakes the soil with a spade or fork, is probably to be referred to the similar shaking on the approach of their constant enemy, the mole.

very

An E. of great size is common in the East Indies, wherever the climate is moist, from the Himalaya to Ceylon and Java. It is icthyophis glutinosus, and abounds much in that viscid secretion which in the common E. also forms a kind of protecting sheath for the animal, and smooths its way.

EAR-TRUMPET, a contrivance for improving the hearing of the partially deaf. For this purpose many ingenious instruments have been devised. The principle in them all is the same: to collect the sonorous vibrations, and to convey them in an intensified form to the deeper parts of the ear. In this way the hand placed behind the external ear constitutes the simplest form of ear-trumpet. Though, in a great number of cases of impaired hearing, there can be no doubt that much assistance and comfort are obtained from the use of one or other of the varieties of the ear-trumpet, still they must not be used indiscriminately, for in unsuitable cases they often do much mischief, both by increasing the deafness, and aggravating the noises in the head from which deaf persons often suffer so much. They are of most use, perhaps, in advanced cases of nervous deafness, though injurious in the early stages of this complaint; they are hurtful also in all acute diseases of the organ, and of little or no use in those cases of great thickening of the contents of the middle ear, where the adapting power of the organ has been lost. There are many varieties of trumpet in common use. By far the most useful and comfortable are those which are worn on the head, which go by the name of ear-cornets or acoustic auricles. They can be concealed under the hair or cap, and may be adapted to one or both ears by means of a spring over the head. The apparatus most commonly in use requires to be held in the hand, and consists of a narrow portion inserted into the ear-passage, and which gradually expands into a wide mouth; or the extremity of the instrument may be turned downwards, as in that form which passes by the name of Miss Martineau's trumpet. Another variety, applicable to the more severe cases of deafness, consists of an elastic tube, one end of which is tipped with 17ory, and is placed in the ear of the patient; the other is held in the hand of the speaker, who applies his mouth to the open extremity. With this instrument only one voice can be heard at a time. With the first-mentioned variety, general conversation can be heard often quite well. Ear-trumpets are generally made of some thin metallic substance, such as tin. Gutta-percha, vulcanite, and other substances, are also frequently used.

EARWIG, Forficula, a genus of orthopterous insects, recently subdivided into a number of genera, and forming the family forficulide, which many entomologists constitute into a distinct order, dermaptera (Gr. leather-winged). These insects indeed connect the true orthoptera with the coleoptera. Their legs are formed for running, and not for leaping; their wing-covers (elytra)—which are very small, and hide only a small part of the abdomen-are of firmer substance than in the other orthoptera; the wings, of which there are two sets-hind and fore wings-are curiously folded under them, both longitudinally, in a fan-like manner, and transversely; the organs of the mouth resemble those of the true orthoptera, with which also earwigs agree in the important character of semi-complete metamorphosis; the larvæ and pupa much resembling the perfect insect, running about and feeding in the same manner, but the larvæ being destitute of wings and wing-covers, the pupa having them only in a rudimentary state. Earwigs have the body narrow, and of nearly equal breadth throughout, the head exposed, the mandibles very strong and horny, the antennæ long and thread-shaped. The abdomen bears at its extremity a large pair of forceps, apparently of use as an instrument of defence. Earwigs abound in moist situations, as under the decayed bark of trees, under stones, among decaying straw, etc. They feed both on animal and vegetable food; the COMMON E. (F. auricularia), very abundant in Britain and in most parts of Europe, is troublesome to gardeners by eating the leaves of plants and the petals of fine flowers; but the injury which it does is probably more than compensated, particularly as to field-crops, by the destruction of multitudes of smaller insects, as thrips, aphis. The appearance of this insect is by no means agreeable, and its mandibles and forceps are suggestive of unpleasant possibilities, which, however, would seem never to be realized, although it is a very frequent visitor of houses, particularly those of which the

etc.

Easter.

walls are covered with foliage. It is curious how extensively prevalent the notion is that earwigs creep into the ear. To this they owe their English name (E. from ear, and Sax. wicga, a worm or grub), and their names in many languages, as the French perceoreille, the German Ohruurm, etc. Newman, in his Introduction to the History of Insects, says: "The shape of these wings (the hind ones), when fully opened, is nearly that of the human ear; and from this circumstance it seems highly probable that the original name of this insect was earwing." It is agreeable to the general habits of the E. to creep into holes, yet there is apparently no authenticated instance of an E. entering the ear of a human being. Of their habit of creeping into holes, particularly to hide during the day, gardeners take advantage to make earwig traps of different descriptions.

An interesting peculiarity in the habits of these insects remains to be noticed. The female E. sits upon her eggs and hatches them like a hen; she also gathers her young ones around her and under her in the most affectionate manner. The observations of De Geer on this point have been confirmed by Mr. Spence and others.

EAS'DALE, a small isle on the w. coast of Argyleshire, in the firth of Lorn, 10 m. s.s. w. of Oban. It contains 14 sq.m., and is situated in Kilbrandon parish. It is noted for its primary or metamorphic slate-quarries, belonging to the marquis of Breadalbane, which have been wrought for more than 150 years, and supply 4 or 5 millions of slates yearly. Compact feldspar and conglomerate also occur in the isle.

EASEL. This structure, the object of which is to support the canvas or panel of the artist at a convenient height for work, has been used for ages pretty much in its present form.

An

EASEMENT, in English law, has been defined to be "a privilege without profit, which the owner of one neighboring tenement hath of another, existing in respect of their several tenements, by which the servient owner is obliged to suffer or not to do' something on his own land for the advantage of a dominant owner."-Gale on Eusements. The rights comprehended under the title of easements are of a very important kind; they include rights of water, rights of way, rights to light and air, rights to support from a neighboring soil or house, rights to carry on an offensive trade, etc. E. is an incorporeal hereditament (q.v.), and corresponds in many respects with a servitude (q.v.) in Scotch law. But an E. is more limited than a servitude, inasmuch as it comprehends those rights only which carry no title to the profit of the soil. These latter rights are in England known as profits a prendre (q.v.). An E. cannot exist apart from an estate in land, it being necessary that there should be two tenements, the one enjoying the right (dominant), the other over which it is enjoyed (servient). An E. must be constituted by deed or by prescription (q.v.). It may be extinguished by an actual or implied release. When a party entitled to the enjoyment of an E. is disturbed in that enjoyment, he may enforce his right by action at law, or he may enter upon the servient tenement, and abate the nuisance himself. The American law on the subject of E. is regulated by the same principles that prevail in England. See Kent's Commentaries on American Law.

EASEMENT (ante), a legal term signifying some right of the public, or of an individual, in lands owned by another; a right existing either at common law or by statute; such, for example, as the right of way across another's estate, or to receive water from, or discharge it across, such estate. The E. is either affirmative or negative; affirmative when the owner of an estate is entitled to do something on the estate of another; negative when he is forbidden to do something, otherwise lawful, on his own premises. It may arise from the nature of things, or from special contract, express or implied. It is an E. when the owner of land makes a grant thereof for public use, as for a road or park, whereby the public gains only a right of use for the purpose specified, the title still remaining with the grantor. An E. in the land of another may also be acquired by prescription—that is, by the continuous and open enjoyment of a privilege without objection for a certain term of years. Easements may be extinguished by release or abandonment, or by a union of the two estates in the same person.

EAST (Ger. Ost; allied probably to Greek eōos, the morning, and Lat. oriens, the rising, i.e., sun) is, vaguely speaking, that quarter of the horizon where the sun rises, or which a person with his face to the s. has on his left hand. It is only at the equinoxes that the sun rises exactly in the e. point. A line at right angles to the meridian of a place points exactly e. and west. See MERIDIAN and HORIZON.

From very early times, the e. has been invested with a certain sacred character, or at least held in respect over other points of the compass. It was the practice of the ancient pagans to fix their altar in the eastern part of their temples, so that they might sacrifice towards the rising sun, which in itself was an object of worship. The custom of venerating the e. was perpetuated by the early Christian church from various circumstances mentioned in the sacred record. For example: "The glory of the God of Israel came from the way of the east."-Ezek. xliii. 2. "There came wise men from the east to Jerusalem."-Matt. ii. 1. "And, lo, the star, which they saw in the east, went before them."-Matt. ii. 9. Tradition heightened respect for the east. It was said that Christ had been placed in the tomb with his feet towards the e., and that at

Easter.

the day of judgment he should come from the eastward in the heavens. Looking towards the sun in the e. in praying or repeating the creed, was thought to put worshipers in remembrance that Christ is the son of righteousness, and such an attitude was accordingly adopted as an aid to devotion. From these various circumstances, the building of churches with the chancel (q.v.) to the e., bowing to the e. on uttering the name of Jesus, and burying with the feet to the e., were introduced as customs in the church. In recent times there has been a general disregard to the practice of turning formally with the face to the e. on repeating the creed, and, as is well known, the attempt to revive it by a party in the English church has caused considerable dispeace. It is a curious instance of the inveteracy of popular custom, that in Scotland, where everything that savored of ancient usage was set aside as popish by the reformers, the practice of burying with the feet to the e. was maintained in the old churchyards, nor is it uncommon still to set down churches with a scrupulous regard to e. and west. modern cemeteries in England and Scotland, no attention appears to be paid to the old punctilio of interring with the feet to the e., the nature of the ground alone being considered in the disposition of graves.

In

EAST ABINGTON, a village in Plymouth co., Mass., 20 m. s.e. of Boston, on the Old Colony railroad; pop. 4,500. The principal business is the manufacture of boots and shoes.

EAST BATON ROUGE, a parish in s.e. Louisiana, between the Mississippi and Amite rivers, 450 sq.m.; pop. 70, 17,816-11,343 colored; in '80, 20,016. Surface, generally level, with fertile soil, producing corn, cotton, sugar, molasses, etc. Seat of justice, Baton Rouge.

EASTBOURNE, a rising watering-place in the s.e. of Sussex. It lies in a chasm between two cliffs, one of which, 3 m. to the s.s.e., forms Beachy head. In the vicinity are fine drives and walks. It has a martello tower and a fort. Pop. of parish '71, 10,361. E. is supposed to have been of Roman origin, and remains of a Roman villa, bath, and tesselated pavements have been found here.

EAST BRIDGEWATER, a t. in Plymouth co., Mass., 25 m. s. e. of Boston, on the Old Colony and Newport railroad; pop. '70, 3,017. There is abundant water power, and manufacturing is the leading business.

EASTBURN, JAMES WALLIS, 1797-1819; b. England; came to America when a child; graduated at Columbia college in 1816, and studied theology with the purpose of taking orders in the Episcopal church. While a student he began a new metrical version of the Psalms. He was joint author with Robert C. Sands of Yamoyden, a romance founded upon the life of Philip, the Narragansett king: and he wrote many small poems. In 1818, he was ordained and took charge of a church in Virginia, but died while on a voyage to the West Indies for his health.

EASTBURN, MANTON, D.D., 1801-72; b. England; brother of James Wallis; came to the United States when a child; graduated at Columbia college, 1817; studied in the Episcopal theological seminary, and was ordained to the ministry, 1825. He was for several years rector of the church of the Ascension, New York, and in 1843 became bishop of Massachusetts. He published Lectures on Hebrew, Latin, and English Poetry; Essays and Dissertations on Biblical Literature; Lectures on the Epistle the Philippians; and many sermons and addresses. He gave the most of his property to religious and

benevolent institutions.

EAST CAPE, the name of the most easterly headlands of the island of Madagascar, of the North island of New Zealand, and of Siberia or Asiatic Russia. The first is in lat. 15° 20' s., and long. 50° 15′ e.; the second in lat. 37° 40′ s., and long. 178° 40′ e., being almost precisely the antipodes of Carthagena in Spain; and the third is that extremity of the old world which is nearest to the new, being separated by Behring's strait (q.v.) from cape Prince of Wales in America. It is in lat. 66° 6' n., and long. 169 38' w.; or rather, to follow the natural reckoning, 190° 22' east.

EASTER (Ger. ostern, Fr. paque, Scot. pasch, from Gr. pascha, the passover), the festival of the resurrection of Jesus Christ, derives probably its Teutonic name from the festival of the goddess Ostara, in Ang.-Sax. Eastre, which the Saxons of old were wont to celebrate about the same season at which the Christian festival of E. occurs. In the ancient church, the celebration of E. lasted 8 days. After the 11th c., however, it was limited to 3, and in later times, generally to 2 days. It was formerly the favorite time for performing the rite of baptism. The courts of justice were closed, and alms dispensed to the poor and needy, who were even feasted in the churches-a custom which led to much disorder. Slaves also received their freedom at that season; and as the austerities of Lent were over, the people gave themselves up to enjoyment; hence the day was called the "Sunday of joy" (Dominica gaudi). To the popular sports and dances were added farcical exhibitions, in which even the clergy joined in some places, reciting from the pulpit stories and legends, with a view to stir the hearers to laughter (risus paschalis). Against this indecency, the reformers of the 16th c. loudly and successfully raised their voices. During the whole week before E.-that is, in the interU. K. V.-15

Eastern.

val between Palm Sunday and the beginning of the E. festival-daily services were held. See PASSION WEEK and GOOD FRIDAY.

On E. day, the people saluted each other with the E. kiss, and the exclamation Surrerit (He is risen); to which the reply was Vere surrexit (He is risen indeed). The chief solemnity always consisted of the celebration of the Lord's supper.

The proper time for the celebration of E. has occasioned no little controversy. In the 2d c., a dispute arose on this point between the eastern and western churches. The great mass of the eastern Christians celebrated E. on the 14th day of the first Jewish month or moon, considering it to be equivalent to the Jewish Passover. The western churches celebrated it on the Sunday after the 14th day, holding that it was the commemoration of the resurrection of Jesus. The council of Nice (325 A.D.) decided in favor of the western usage, branding the eastern usage with the name of the "quartadeciman" heresy. This, however, only settled the point that E. was to be held, not upon a certain day of the month or moon, but on a unday. The proper astronomical cycle for calculating the occurrence of the E. moon was not determined by this council. It appears, however, that the metonic cycle (q.v.) was already in use in the west for this purpose; and it was on this cycle that the Gregorian calendar, introduced in 1582, was arranged. The method on which this calendar is constructed is too complex for description here. An elaborate account of the whole matter was published by prof. De Morgan in the Companion to the British Almanac in 1845, and to this the reader is referred. The time of E. being the most ancient and important of all the movable feasts of the Christian church, determines all the rest. It was debated, at the time of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, whether E should continue to be movable, or whether a fixed Sunday, after the 21st of Mar., should not be adopted. It was deference to ancient custom that led the ecclesiastical authorities to adhere to the method of determination by the moon. It must be remembered, however, that it is not the actual moon in the heavens, nor even the mean moon of astronomers, that regulates the time of E., but an altogether imaginary moon, whose periods are so contrived that the new (calendar) moon always follows the real new moon (sometimes by 2, or even 3 days). The effect of this is, that the 14th of the calendar moon-which had, from the times of Moses, been considered 'full moon" for ecclesiastical purposes-falls generally on the 15th or 16th of the real moon, and thus after the real full moon, which is generally on the 14th or 15th day. With this explanation, then, of what is meant by full moon," viz., that it is the 14th day of the calendar moon, the rule is that E. day is always the first Sunday after the paschal full moon, i.e., the full moon which happens upon or next after the 21st of Mar. (the beginning of the ecclesiastical year); and if the full moon happens upon a Sunday, E. day is the Sunday after. For any given year, the day on which the paschal full moon falls, and then E. day, are found by the following table and rule:

First ascertain the dominical letter (q.v.)-taking the second where there are twoand the golden number (see EPACT); look for the golden number in the third column of the table, and opposite to it stands the day of the full moon; then look for the dominical letter, next after the day of full moon, and the day standing opposite the dominical letter is E. day. It sometimes happens that E. day, as thus determined, is different from what it would be if by "full moon" were understood the astronomical full moon. Thus, in 1818, E. day, by the calendar, fell, and was celebrated on the 22d of Mar., the earliest possible day, although the full moon was on that day; and in 1845, it again fell on the day of the actual full moon (the 23d of Mar.).

One object in arranging the calendar moon was, that E. might never fall on the same day as the Jewish Passover. They did occur together, however, in 1805, on the 14th of April; and in 1825, on the 3d April; and will do so again in 1903, on the 12th April;