CHAPTER XVIII. 1518-1519. Selim usurps the Ottoman throne-Defeats the sophi of Persia-Conquers Egypt-Apprehensions entertained for the safety of Europe-Leo X. en deavours to form an alliance among the Christian powers-Publishes a general truce for five years-His plan of an offensive league against the Turks-The Christian sovereigns engage only in a defensive allianceMarriage of Lorenzo de' Medici with Madelaine de Tours-Munificence of the pope on that occasion-Charles of Austria endeavours to obtain the title of king of the Romans, and the investiture of Naples-Death of the emperor elect, Maximilian-Charles of Austria and Francis I. contend for the imperial crown-Views and conduct of Leo X.-Election of the emperor Charles V.-Death of Lorenzo, duke of Urbino-Ippolito de' Medici-Alessandro de' Medici-Consequences of the death of Lorenzo-State of the Florentine government-Memoir of Machiavelli-The cardinal de' Medici directs the affairs of Tuscany-Urbino united to the dominions of the church. THE states of Italy were now freed from the calamities of internal war, but the apprehensions entertained of the increasing power and desolating ferocity of the Turks, diminished that satisfaction which their inhabitants had begun to experience. Nor was there ever a time when these apprehensions were more justly founded. The Ottoman throne was now filled by a monarch who, to the most ardent and persevering courage, united the most insatiable thirst of conquest, and the utmost cruelty of disposition. By a successful rebellion, and the murder of his father Bajazet, Selim had prematurely seized upon the reins of empire, to the exclusion of his brother Achmet; whom, having afterwards defeated in an engagement, he publicly put to death. The two sons of Achmet, and a younger brother of Selim, with many others of the family, experienced a similar fate; and such was the unnatural hatred by which this monster was actuated against his own blood, that he intended to deprive of life Solyman his only son; who lived, however, to inherit the sanguinary jealousy of his father, and to complete the unnatural example by the destruction of his own offspring. 138 Having by these means endeavoured to secure himself against all competition at home, Selim directed his efforts towards the conquest of the surrounding states, and it was for some time doubtful whether Asia, Europe, or Africa, would first have to sustain the fury of his attack. A shade of differ ence in construing the law of the great prophet, and the offence of having afforded assistance to Achmet, his unfortunate brother, determined him, however, to turn his arms against Ismael, sophi of Persia, whom he defeated in a decisive engagement, and possessing himself of the city of Tauris, delivered up to be plundered by his soldiery; having first sent the principal inhabitants as slaves to Constantinople. The sterility of the country, which disabled him from obtaining supplies for his numerous army, compelled him, however, to relinquish his conquests; but Selim found no delight except in slaughter, and no relaxation except in preparing for a new expedition. After possessing himself of a great part of the country lying between the Tigris and the Euphrates, he attacked the sultan of Egypt; and notwithstanding the power and resources of that sovereign, and the courage and fidelity of the Mamelukes, he succeeded in subjugating that kingdom, and annexing it to the Ottoman dominions. In this contest the sultan Campson perished in battle, and his successor Tomombey, the last sovereign of the Mamelukes, having been made a prisoner, was put to death by Selim, with circumstances of peculiar ignominy and cruelty.* The fall of such a long-established and powerful empire, which had been supported by a military system of unexampled vigour for upwards of three hundred years, struck all Europe with terror, which the preparations carrying on at Constantinople for another, and apparently still more important expedition, were not calculated to allay. This general alarm was also increased by the knowledge of the personal character of Selim, who sought to cover the enormity of his guilt by the splendour of his triumphs. He is also said to have inflamed his passion for conquest by perusing the narratives of the deeds of Alexander and of Cæsar, which he caused to be translated and read to him. Thus is the world destined to pay the penalty of its blind admiration of those whom it dignifies with the name of heroes. At some times it was supposed that the island of Rhodes and * Sagredo, Mem, Ister. lib. iii. p. 141. the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, who then possessed it, and were considered as the bulwark of Christendom, would be the first objects of his attack. At other times, apprehensions were entertained that the kingdom of Hungary, then governed, during the infancy of its sovereign, by a regency, would most probably excite his ambition; whilst others deemed it probable that the example of his grandfather Mahomet, who had, in the year 1480, captured Otranto, and gained a footing in the kingdom of Naples, might induce him to attempt the conquest of Italy. At this juncture Leo X. conceived it to be his peculiar office and duty, as head of the Christian church, to endeavour to form such an alliance among the sovereigns of Europe, as might not only repress the incursions of these formidable enemies, but, by carrying the war into the Ottoman dominions, might either expel them from the countries which they had recently occupied, or afford them sufficient employment in providing for their own defence. But although the circumstances of the times were the immediate motives which induced the pontiff to take an active part in opposing the power of the Turks, yet his dread and abhorrence of them had long been avowed. From the commencement of his pontificate, his efforts had been employed to engage the sovereigns of Christendom to unite together in a common attack upon the infidels, and the harmony which now subsisted among them seemed to afford a more favourable prospect of accomplishing this great object than had ever before presented itself. The exertions of the pontiff were stimulated by the representations made to him on behalf of the sovereigns of those countries which bordered on the Turkish dominions, and particularly by the governors and inhabitants of the provinces of Croatia and Dalmatia, who were obliged to maintain their independence by a cruel and continual warfare. He was also incited to persevere in this attempt by many noble and learned Greeks, resident in Italy, who yet flattered themselves with faint and distant hopes of regaining their native country, and by several eminent Italian scholars, who had imbibed from their preceptors a hatred of the Turks, as the enemies alike of learning, of liberty, and of religion. 139 Nor can it, perhaps, with truth be denied, that Leo was also prompted to this attempt by the ambitious desire of being considered as the author of this general league of the Christian powers, and of seeing himself placed at their head, as the supreme director of their movements. The first public measure adopted by the pontiff, was the calling together the cardinals in full consistory, where he laid before them his vast project, and published a general truce among the potentates of Europe for the space of five years; subjecting, in the severest terms, all such princes or states as should contravene it, to the penalties of excommunication. He then despatched as his legates to the principal sovereigns of Europe, such of the cardinals as enjoyed the highest character for their talents, and held the chief place in his confidence. Bernardo da Bibbiena was sent to France, Lorenzo Campegio to England, 10 Egidio of Viterbo to Spain, and Alessandro Farnese to the emperor elect, Maximilian; all of them furnished with ample instructions as to the object of their mission, and with directions to give to these different sovereigns the most positive assurances, that the sole object which the pontiff had in view was the general safety of Europe, and the protection and honour of the Christian church. In order to promote the success of these exertions, or to give a greater degree of solemnity and importance to the measures which he meant to adopt, Leo directed that public supplications should be made in Rome for three successive days; in the course of which he walked in the public processions with head uncovered and naked feet; performed in person divine offices, distributed his bounty to the poor, and by every mark of humility and devotion endeavoured to conciliate the favour of Heaven, or at least to evince the sincerity of his intentions. On this occasion Jacopo Sadoleti also delivered a public oration, encouraging the intended enterprise, and highly commending the pontiff for the piety, zeal, and activity, with which he devoted himself to the common cause, and the different sovereigns of Europe for the ardour which they had already manifested in its support. * Leo was, however, well aware that the success of his undertaking was not to be solely intrusted to measures of this nature. It is folly," said he, "to sit still and suppose that these fero cious enemies can be conquered by prayers alone. We must Sadoleti Op. tom. ii. p. 257. provide our armies and attack them with all our strength."* He therefore consulted with the most experienced soldiers of Italy; he sought out and examined those persons who were best acquainted with the military force of the Turks, the disposition of the inhabitants of the different countries which they held in subjection, and the places most open to an attack; and having obtained the fullest information in his power, he sketched the great outline of his undertaking. By this he proposed, that an immense sum of money should be raised from the voluntary contributions of the European sovereigns, and a compulsory tax upon their subjects; that the emperor of Germany should provide a numerous army, which, uniting with large bodies of cavalry, to be furnished by the Hungarians and the Poles, should proceed down the Danube into Bosnia, and thence, through Thracia, towards Constantinople; that, at the same time, the king of France, with all his force, the armies of the Venetians, and other Italian states, and a powerful body of Swiss infantry, should assemble at the port of Brindisi, on the Adriatic Gulf, whence they might easily pass to Greece, which was still inhabited by great numbers of Christians, impatient of the tyranny of the Turks; that the fleets of Spain, of Portugal, and of England, should meet at Carthagena, and its adjacent ports, whence two hundred vessels should be despatched with Spanish soldiers to attack the Dardanelles, and join the allies in storming the Turkish capital. In the mean time, the pope, who meant to take a personal part in the attempt, proposed to proceed from Ancona, accompanied by one hundred well-armed vessels; so that the Turks being attacked both by land and by sea with such immense numbers, a happy termination of the expedition might be speedily and confidently expected.† Thus far this mighty enterprise seems to have proceeded with favourable omens, and Leo had already, perhaps, anticipated in his own mind the time so frequently foretold, when he should be hailed as the restorer of the eastern empire, the deliverer of the Holy Land, and the avenger of the atrocities committed on Christendom by the Turks. But these magnificent expecta * Fabron. p. 73. This may be thought a bold truth from the mouth of a pontiff; but Sagredo, the historian, avows the same sentiment. Mem. Otteman. p. 144. +Guicciard. Storia d'Ital. lib. xiii. vol. ii. p. 154. |