were associated with the religion of his country, enjoyed a kind of sacred character; and as his compensation was generally derived from princes and pontiffs, from munificent ecclesiastics, or rich monastic institutions, the ample reward which he obtained stimulated both himself and others to further exertions. To the complete success of the artist, a favourable concurrence of extraneous circumstances is often necessary, and the mind already impressed with religious awe by the silence and solemnity of the cloister, or the cathedral, dwells with additional interest on representations already in unison with its feelings, and which exemplify, in the most striking_manner, the objects of its highest admiration and respect. Even the opportunity afforded the artist, of a spacious repository for his productions, where they were likely to remain secure for ages, and where they might be seen with every advantage of position, was a circumstance highly favourable to his success. The tendency of the Reformation was to deprive him of these benefits, to exclude his productions from the place of worship, as profane or idolatrous, to compel him to seek his subjects in the colder pages of history, and his patrons among secular, and less wealthy individuals. This effect is not, however, so much to be attributed to the opinions or the instigation of Luther himself, as to those of his over-zealous followers, who, on this head, went far beyond what he conceived to be either necessary or expedient. During his retreat at his Patmos, his disciple Carlostadt, in a paroxysm of religious enthusiasm, had ordered the images and representations of the saints in the church of Wittemberg to be destroyed; a circumstance of which Luther was no sooner informed, than he quitted his retirement without the knowledge of his patron the elector, and hastening to Wittemberg, effectually checked the further proceedings of Carlostadt and his adherents.* From the sentiments of Luther on this head, as expressed in various parts of his works, it appears that he conceived such representations might be tolerated, provided they were not regarded as objects of worship; although he did not admit that there was any merit in encouraging them, and with true sectarian spirit, thought the cost of them would be better applied to the use of the

*Maimbur. ap. Seckend. lib. i. p. 197.

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brethren,179 The opinion of Erasmus in this, as in other respects, was much more liberal. "They who have attacked the images of saints," says he, although with immoderate zeal, have had some reason for their conduct; for idolatry, that is, the worship of images, is a horrible crime; and although it be now abolished, yet the arts of Satan are always to be guarded against. But when we reflect that statuary and painting, formerly regarded as liberal arts, are a kind of silent poesy, and have often an effect on the feelings of mankind beyond that produced by the most accomplished orator, it might have been well to have corrected their superstition without destroying their utility. I could, indeed, wish that the walls of all public places were decorated with representations of the incidents of the life of Christ, expressed in a becoming manner. But as it was decreed in the council of Africa, that in places of worship nothing should be recited but the scriptural canons, so it would be proper that no subjects should be exhibited in such places, except such as the scriptural canons supply. In the porches, vestibules, or cloisters, other subjects might be represented, taken from common history, so that they inculcated good morals; but absurd, obscene, or seditious pictures should be banished not only from churches, but from all habitations; and as it is a kind of blasphemy to pervert the sacred writings to profane and wanton jests, so those painters deserve to be punished, who, when they represent subjects from the Holy Scriptures, mingle with them their own improper and ridiculous inventions. If they wish to indulge their folly, let them rather seek for their subjects in Philostratus; although the annals of heathenism afford many lessons which may be exhibited with great utility."* That observations so rational, and from which Luther himself would scarcely have dissented, have not been sufficient to prevent the almost total exclusion of picturesque representations from the reformed churches, is greatly to be regretted; not only as being an irreparable injury to the arts, but as depriving the people of a mode of instruction, not less calculated to interest their feelings, and excite their piety, than that which is conveyed by means of speech. Whether mankind, in any state of *Erasm. ap. Seckendorf. lib. iii. p. 51.

society, were ever so ignorant as to make these visible representations the actual objects of their adoration, may well be doubted; but at all events there can now be no danger of such an error in the most uninformed part of Europe; and it may yet be hoped, that as the spirit of bigotry declines, Religion be allowed to avail herself of every aid which may engage her admirers, illustrate her precepts, or enforce her laws.180

may

The effects produced by the Reformation on the political and moral state of Europe, are of a much more important nature. The destruction of the authority of the Romish see, throughout many flourishing, and many rising nations, whilst it freed the monarch from the imperious interposition of an arrogant pontiff, released the people from that oppressive and undefined obedience to a foreign power, which exhausted their wealth, impeded their enjoyments, and interfered in all their domestic concerns. The abolition of the odious and absurd institutions of monastic life, by which great numbers of persons were restored to the common purposes of society, infused fresh vigour into those states which embraced the opinions of the reformers; and the restoration of the ancient and apostolic usage of the Christian church, in allowing the priesthood to marry, was a circumstance of the utmost advantage to the morals and manners of the age. To this may be added the destruction of many barbarous, absurd, and superstitious dogmas, by which the people were induced to believe that crimes could be commuted for money, and dispensations purchased even for the premeditated commission of sins.

But perhaps the most important advantage derived from the Reformation is to be found in the great example of freedom of inquiry which was thus exhibited to the world, and which has produced an incalculable effect on the state and condition of mankind. That liberty of opinion which was at first exercised only on religious subjects, was, by a natural and unavoidable progress, soon extended to those of a political nature. Throughout many of the kingdoms of Europe, civil and religious liberty closely accompanied each other; and their inhabitants, in adopting measures which seemed to them necessary to secure eternal happiness, have at least obtained those temporal advantages which, in many instances, have amply repaid them for their sacrifices and their labours

That these and similar benefits were, however, in a great degree counterbalanced by the dreadful animosities to which the Reformation gave rise, as well between the reformers and the adherents to the ancient discipline, as between the different denominations of the reformed churches, cannot be denied; and the annals of Europe exhibit a dreadful picture of war, desolation and massacre, occasioned by the various struggles of the contending parties for the defence, or the establishment, of their respective opinions. 181 Whoever adverts to the cruelties exercised on the Anabaptists, the Socinians, and various other sects of Christians, who differ in some abstruse or controverted points from the established churches; whoever surveys the criminal code of the Lutheran and Calvinistic nations of Europe, and observes the punishments denounced against those who may dare to dissent, although upon the sincerest conviction, from the established creed, and considers the dangers to which they are exposed in some countries, and the disabilities by which they are stigmatised and oppressed in others, must admit that the important object which the friends and promoters of rational liberty had in view, has hitherto been but imperfectly accomplished, and that the human mind. a slave in all ages, has rather changed its master, thau freed itself from its servitude.182

CHAPTER XX.

1521.

Enors incident to an early state of society-Writings of Aristotle--Rival doctrines of Plato-Commentators on the philosophy of the ancients-Niccolo Leonico Tomeo-Pietro Pomponazzo-Agostino Nifo- Giovan-Francesco Pico-Study of natural philosophy-Attempts towards the reformation of the Calendar-Discoveries in the East and West Indies-Papal grants of foreign parts-Consequences of the new discoveries-Humane interference of Leo X.-Study of natural history-Moral philosophy-Matteo BossoPontano-His treatise De Principe-His work De Obedientia and other writings-Baldassare Castiglione-His Libro del Cortegiano-Novel writers -Matteo Bandello-Pietro Aretino.

It is a striking fact, that mankind, when they begin to cultivate their intellectual powers, have generally turned their first attention towards those abstruse and speculative studies which are the most difficult of comprehension, and the most remote from their present state and condition. This is the natural result of that inexperience which is common to an early or unimproved state of society. Ignorant of that which relates to their immediate well-being, they attempt to rise into the realms of immaterial existence; or, if the laws of nature engage their notice, it is only in subordination to some higher purpose. The course of the heavenly bodies would be considered as a study not deserving of their attention, were it not believed to unfold to them the secrets of futurity; and the productions of the vegetable and mineral kingdoms are disregarded, except when they are supposed to exhibit striking prodigies, or to produce miraculous effects. 18 Hence it has been the most difficult effort of the human mind to divest itself of absurdity and of error, and to quit its sublime flights for the plain and palpable inductions of reason and common sense; and hence the due estimation of our own powers, although it be of all sciences the most important, is generally the latest acquired.