Mr. Seward, then secretary of state, promptly protested in the name of the United States, on the ground that the people of Mexico favored a republican form of government of domestic origin, and that it was essential to the progress of civilization on the American continent. He was sustained by our Congress, which, without a dissenting voice, passed a resolution declaring that “it does not accord with the policy of the United States to acknowledge any monarchical government erected on the ruins of any republican government in America, under the auspices of any European power."

The passage of this resolution created great excitement in France, and war seemed imminent, but the United States was not then in a condition to enforce its declaration, and was compelled to be a passive witness of the overthrow of the Mexican republic. At the close of our Civil War, however, Mr. Bigelow, the United States minister to France, was instructed to demand the immediate withdrawal of the French troops from the territory of Mexico. It has been asserted that he gave an assurance that the authority of Maximilian would be recognized if this was done, but this assurance was promptly disapproved by the President, and the demand was renewed without any conditions or qualifications, and Mr. Seward instructed the American minister to inform the French government:

"1. That the United States earnestly desire to continue and cultivate sincere friendship with France.

"2. That this policy will be brought into immediate jeopardy unless France can deem it consistent with her interest and honor to desist from the prosecution of armed intervention in Mexico to overthrow the domestic republican government existing there, and to establish upon its ruins the foreign monarchy which has been attempted to be inaugurated at the capital of that country."

To emphasize the declarations of this government, General Sheridan was sent to the southwestern frontier with a large portion of the army that had been engaged in the Civil War, and on the 5th of April, 1866, the French emperor ordered his troops to evacuate Mexico. Being left to his own resources the ill-fated Maximilian was soon overcome. He appealed to Napoleon, to Austria, and to the pope, without success, and in June, 1867, was captured and shot.

The Northwest Boundary Dispute.

The occupation of the northern portion of the continent of North America by Great Britain and Russia was a source of great irritation to the United States during the first half of the present century, and the limits and boundaries of the territory acquired by purchase from France and Spain were so indefinite as to be the cause of constant friction. By a treaty between the United States and Great Britain, signed in 1818 and renewed in 1827, all disputed territory was left free and open to citizens of both nations. Finally, in 1846 the 49th parallel of north latitude was fixed as the boundary line between the United States and the British possessions. There was some earnest discussion in this country as to the application of the Monroe doctrine, and the forcible annexation of Canada and British Columbia to the United States was frequently suggested, but it was maintained by the conservative sentiment of the people that the spirit of that doctrine only applied to the invasion of the American continent by European powers, and the extension of foreign authority, and as stated by Mr. Monroe not to the peaceable occupation of territory already occupied.

Early in the century claims were made by the United States to the entire Pacific coast from Bering Strait southward to and beyond the mouth of the Columbia River, and in 1821 the government of Russia created some consternation by asserting

its territorial rights as far south as the 51st degree of north latitude. Both the United States and Great Britain were emphatic in their expressions of dissent, and diplomatic correspondence on this subject continued for several years until the boundaries between Alaska and British Columbia were determined by a treaty signed at St. Petersburg in 1825. In 1865 these boundaries were recognized by the United States by the purchase of the territory of Alaska from Russia for the sum of $7,200,000.

The Monroe Doctrine in Santo Domingo.

The Monroe doctrine was again invoked to protect the republic of Santo Domingo against the designs of Spain. That island, upon which was established the first civilized government in the new world, was a Spanish colony until it was ceded to France in 1795, but in 1844 it achieved its independence under the influence of that remarkable negro, Toussaint L'Ouverture. In 1861 a revolutionary leader by the name of Pedro Santana overthrew the legitimate government, and proclaiming himself dictator, invited Spain to resume its ancient relations with the island. A few Spanish troops were sent over to sustain Santana, but the government at Madrid was very much engaged with its own domestic disturbances, and never attempted to take formal possession. The people of the republic applied to the United States for aid and protection, but being occupied with the war the government could do no more than offer sympathy and forward a remonstrance to the king of Spain. As a result the Spanish army was withdrawn from Santo Domingo in July, 1865, and the Santo Dominicans proclaimed that "the United Dominican people, without regard to rank or color, have planted the white cross of the republic on the principle enunciated by the Great Mother of free nations, that America belongs to the Americans, and we will endure all our trials over again sooner than desert it."

In 1864 a war broke out between Spain and her former colonies on the west coast of South America. It was caused by the forcible seizure by Spain of the Chinca Islands, which were rich with guano, to indemnify certain Spanish residents in Peru for losses suffered during a revolution in the latter country. The citizens of the United States residing in Peru called a meeting, which was attended by the subjects of other nations, and passed a series of indignant resolutions, embodying the principles of the Monroe doctrine, and calling upon the United States government to enforce them as "the safeguard and only defense of the sister republics of this continent." The neighboring republics of Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chili joined with Peru in a treaty of offense and defense against Spain, and the fleet of the latter nation responded by bombarding Valparaiso on March 31, 1866. The United States entered a remonstrance, hostilities were suspended, and a peace conference was held at Washington, which was presided over by Hamilton Fish. Its deliberations resulted in a treaty for a permanent armistice, which "cannot be broken by any of the belligerents, until three years after express and explicit notification shall have been given by one to the other of the intention to renew hostilities. In such case notification must be made through the government of the United States."

CHAPTER VIII.

NEGOTIATIONS FOR AN INTEROCEANIC CANAL.

THE great purpose of all the early explorers in American waters was to discover a western passage from Europe to India, China, and other countries of the East. The Portuguese voyagers found a pathway around the Cape of Good Hope, and, when Columbus started from Palos upon his memorable voyage, he had no expectation of finding a new world, but sought only to demonstrate the accuracy of the theory that the world was round, and that India could be reached by sailing westward as well as to the east. On his last and most disastrous voyage he cruised up and down the northern coast of Central America, searching each inlet and creek and bay for the navigable passage his genius taught him should be there, but which nature, by some Titanic convulsion, had closed ages before his time.

The discovery of the Straits of Magellan, and the circumnavigation of the globe by the seamen who followed Columbus proved the truth of his theories, but the enormous distance that must be sailed before the Pacific Ocean could be entered made it necessary to shorten the route by artificial means. As early as 1513, when the Pacific Ocean was discovered by Vasco Nuñez de Balboa, a proposition for a canal through the isthmus was made, but several years passed before the Spaniards abandoned the attempt to find a natural channel across the continent. As late as 1523, Emperor Charles V. ad