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as it has never yet been fully fhewn that the Deity fo immedi ately and continually influenced the minds of the evangelical writers, as to enable them to understand in their primitive meaning all the words and expreffions of the antient Hebrew, (which, in their time, had loft its purity and was become obfolete,) and accurately to tranflate the ideas of the prophets into the language in which they wrote, without any mixture of their own notions; the writings of the New Teftament can be of no decifive authority in afcertaining the true and primitive meaning of the prophets; nor can it avail in any instance, in which the grammatical fenfe of the original does not exactly coincide with that of the quotation: but this very condition fuppofes an accurate inveftigation of the prophetic writings, independent of any connection with the New Teftament. fecond poftulate is the exclufion of a double sense of prophecy. Thefe poftulates being premifed, the author's first maxim is, that no prophecy of the Meffiah is to be found in the Old Testament, before the introduction of monarchical government among the Jews. He thus excludes feveral paffages, which have been confidered by fome divines as prophetic of Chrift. That he should reject Gen. iii. 15. will eafily be conceived by those who are acquainted with the difficulties with which this chapter has embarraffed the best commentators. The promises in Gen. xii. 3. and xxii. 17, 18. refer to nothing more than to the populousness and political greatnefs of the nation that was to defcend from Abraham; and concerning Gen. xlix. 10. M. KONYNENBURG adopts the opinion of Doederlein, who explains it as relating merely to the political circumftances and military triumphs of the tribe of Judah; and by whom the paffage is thus tranflated: "The Scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor fhall a commander of his foot-foldiers be wanting, till his peace fhall take place, and the nations shall be fubject to him.”

The Profeffor allows, in his fecond rule, that thofe paffages may be confidered as prophecies referring to the Meffiah, in which mention is made of a future triumphant monarchical government: but, in his third, he excepts from this general maxim all thofe places which have an immediate relation to events that took place in the Jewish cecomony, before the coming of Chrift; for he obferves that as the prophets were intimately acquainted with the political circumftances of their country, they very frequently fpoke, in the poetical style of prophecy, concerning events, either of their own times, or which they forefaw would fhortly happen. Among thefe paffages he particularly mentions Ifaiah vii. 14-16. ix. 6, 7. and the eleventh chapter; which, we are told, refer to Hezekiah, and not to the Meffiah. Under this head, alfo, he excludes all thofe places in

the

the Pfalms, which have been applied to Chrift by the writers of the New Teftament. He farther obferves that those texts may be confidered as relating to the Meffiah, in which the prophet, though he borrows his imagery from the events and circumftances of his own nation, promises a measure of virtue and happiness infinitely exceeding any thing that ever took place under the political economy of the Jews; especially those paffages in which an univerfal acknowlegement and worship of the true God are predicted:-for this idea is always characteristic of the prophecies of the Meffiah; and the prophets, in representing it, feem always to have borrowed their imagery from the profperous reigns of David and Solomon.

According to the Profeffor, no paffage can be regarded as referring to the Meffiah, which predicts perfonal rejection and fuffering. Under this head, he excludes Ifaiah liii. In his explanation of this prophecy be fays that it begins with the thirteenth verfe of the preceding chapter; and he thinks that it refers to the diftrefs and disease of Hezekiah, which he supposes was the leprofy, and to the reftoration of this monarch to health and profperity. As to Zechariah xii, 10. it is obferved that, without having recourfe to the interpretation given of it by Grotius, it is so very deficient in point of connection, that nothing certain can be founded on it; for it is here laid down as a rule that no prophecy can be faid to relate to the Meffiah, unless the connection, in which it ftands, evinces the prophet's intention, by the most fublime reprefentations of political and moral felicity, to speak comfort to his dejected countrymen, and to excite them to that reformation of religion and manners, on which all thefe fplendid prospects of national happiness were founded, and without which they could never take place. Hence the author concludes that thefe prophecies have never been accomplished in the fenfe in which they were pronounced; because the morals of the Jews, as a nation, have never yet attained that perfection which the prophets themfelves made the indifpenfable condition of their political profperity.

In reviewing this publication, we have exceeded our ufual limits but, as the fubject is important, and as fome of our author's fentiments may appear novel to English readers, we were defirous of giving a faithful account of them. They may poffibly give umbrage to thofe who found their notions of religion on the plenary infpiration of every paffage, both in the Old and New Teftament, and who believe the whole Bible to be, in the ftricteft fenfe, the work of God:-but this hypothefis, though it has been adopted by many pious and learned men, is attended with so many difficulties, that we fcarcely think those 004

who

who are attached to it would be able to defend either Judaism or Chriftianity against the objections of a fenfible and well-informed Deift:-many men, not less eminent than the former for piety and learning, have perceived this, and have embraced different principles of interpretation. Without inquiring whether opinions be agreeable to human ftandards of orthodoxy, we conceive ourselves, as men and as Chriftians, under fome obligations to those who, with that ferioufnefs and modefty which characterize the diligent investigator of truth, communicate the refult of their refearches. This the prefent ingenious author has done, and we regard his work as throwing confiderable light on the subject; though there may be particulars in it to which we might perhaps be able to offer fome objections: but, as it is not our business to enter into controverfy, we fhall conclude this article with expreffing our general approbation, and with reminding our readers that the learned Profeffor confiders the prophecies with refpect only to the ideas of prophets and their countrymen as Jews; he thus ftrialy confines himself to the terms of the queftion proposed, without inquiring into the mode of application adopted by the writers of the New Teftament. His vindication of the conduct of Providence in both difpenfations, with which he concludes his book, is highly judicious; and, had we room to infert it, would prove that he is a fincere and able advocate of the religion of Jefus; who, though not the temporal Meffiah expected by the Jews, was, in the most exalted fenfe, the Chrift of God.

ART. XI. HENRICI CONSTANTINI CRAS Difputatio de Hominum Equalitate, &c. An Effay on the Equality of Mankind, and on the Rights and Duties refulting from this Principle. By HENRY CONSTANTINE CRAS, 1.U.D. Profeffor of the Law of Nature and Nations, and of Civil and Roman Law in the Academical School of Amfterdam. Second Edition. 8vo. pp. 178. Haarlem and Amiterdam. 1794.

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s we gave a very particular account of the contents of this Effay in the tenth volume of our New Series, page 481, &c., we mention this edition only on account of its fpirited and well-written preface; in which the author vindicates the subject of his difcuffion from the objections of thofe violent partisans of power, who hate every argument, however moderate and ra. tional, that tends to eftablifh liberty.

In answer to fuch opponents, Profeffor CRAS, while he allows that the doctrine of human equality may in fome inftances have been fo mifunderstood and abufed as to produce licentioufness and anarchy, calls on the other party to acknowlege that it has also been fhamefully infringed and violated; and

that

that to this violation, and the contempt of the obligations of humanity by thofe in power, many of the calamities are owing which render the lot of mankind truly miferable. He contends that the proper method of diminishing thefe evils, and of improving the condition of our fellow-creatures, is not to deny and rail at the principles of liberty and equality, but calmly to investigate and accurately to define them.

The Profeffor juftly obferves that great pains have been taken to perfuade mankind that the circumstances attending the late revolutions in France are entirely new and unexpected, totally different from all that ever happened before. It is a common error, with men of narrow capacities and contracted minds, to confine their views to the events immediately before them, without regarding that long feries of caufes which preceded and produced them; whereas, were they to attend to thefe, and to make a proper ufe of the information which hiftory fo freely offers, they would fee that there is really nothing in the events of the prefent age which might not be expected from the circumftances that led the way to them; and that, on the theatre of the world, the drama of former times has been repeated, with little other alteration than that of actors and scenery.

Among the caufes which operated toward producing the deftruction of the French monarchy, the author mentions the degenerate and abandoned character of the courtiers; the ambition and extravagance of the fourteenth and fifteenth Lewis, by which the public finances were ruined, and the people grievously oppreffed; and the infidious fyftem of policy, by which the court of Versailles was induced to interfere in the domeftic concerns of other nations,-particularly the measures which it adopted to foment the difputes between Great Britain. and America; in confequence of which, in order to preferve fome appearance of confiftency, it was obliged to encourage in its own fubjects a freedom of political investigation which, among an oppreffed people, can scarcely fail to terminate in the fubverfion of arbitrary dominion. In this view, alfo, the Professor rakes notice of the quarrels between Lewis XV. and the parliaments, and the fpirited remonftrances to which they gave occafion, which, by means of copies published in Holland, were dif fufed throughout France. It is in vain, therefore, that the writings of Voltaire and Rouffeau are blamed as the caufe of that fpirit of liberty which produced the French revolution; long before thefe writers, the contempt of fuperftition and the hatred of tyranny had made a confiderable progrefs in that country; and, for the production of these effects, the abfurdity of its religion, the vices of its clergy, the oppreffive infolence of its nobles,

the

the rapacity and profligacy of its courtiers, and the wretched adminiftration of its government, were caufes abundantly fufficient.

• Quid mirum igitur, (fays this intelligent philofopher,) quod omnis evi docuit memoria, tanti imperii fortunam cum moribus immutatam effe, fædamque fervitutem, ad quam omnia primo inclinare, mox ruere etiam caperant, etfi per longum temporis lapfum, ipfâ tolerandi neceffitate prope in jus videbatur verfa, tandem intolerabilem vifam; et, quanto major effet epprefforum civium multitudo, tanto vehementiori impetu fracta ejus vincula effe, excuffumque omnis dominationis jugum? Quid mirum, rejectis ita frenis imperii, vacillare initio civitatis, libertati nondum affueta, gubernationem, ac fufpiciones, difcordias atque odia nafci, immoderatamque concionum libertatem, quâ totam concidiffe Græciam judicavit Cicero, in infinitam interdum licentiam exire, quæ fummam excitet factionum audaciam? Itaque omnia fibi arripere alii, et de potiori inter fe auctoritate certare; in fadiffima obfequia ruere alii; alii invidiam excitare bonis, aut criminari feveritatem, aut moderationem omnem vocare in fufpicionem, et calumniis opprimere. Quid mirum igitur, ja&atas huc et illuc rerum habenas aliquando ad eos pervenire, inter quos fint, qui, vel arrogantiâ inflati, fimulate virtutis fpecie fallant incautam multitudinem; vel qui moderate imperandi munus atque officium ignorantes, magnum populum ducere nequeant; vel fi tante artis periti fint, qui improborum modo fraudibus prohibeantur, mado falfis etiam criminationibus oppreffi, tanquam proditores patriæ interdum morte multentur? In eâ fluctuatione animorum rerumque inconftantia, nondum firmatâ ftabilitâque novi imperii formá, facile exoritur etiam alter Cleo, audacis et inanis ingenii homo, turbulentus, criminofus, imperii incenfus cupidine, fed difertus, fed multitudini ab ejus ore attonitæ pendenti, ad tempus faltem gratiffimus adulator, fed auctoritate fuá ferox, qui barbara fævitiæ infanda exempla ftatuat in omnes, quos fuis conciliis imperandique aviditati vel poffe tantum adverfari fufpicetur? Itaque bujus unius vel etiam paucorum dominorum libidine atque fuperbia iterum oppreffa, Natio infelix aliquando gemit, plurimofque boneftiffimos cives fuos, neceffarios, propinquos perire videt, qui non fuâ culpâ, fed aliorum fcelere et nequitia calamitofi, quum neque fibi, neque patriæ amplius ullam falutis fpem reliquam videant, quam fubeunt mortem, eam benefac terum confcientiâ freti, non timeant, fed contra, veluti unum quod fibi fuperfit folatium, ardentibus quoque votis exoptent.-Itaque nifi ex fummâ neceffitate, femel firmati tolerabilis imperii commutationem non optari temere, nedum tentari oportere, fapientiffimi quique et moderatifimi Viri monuerunt. Quamquam quod ad Gallos attinet, eorum ita collapfæ res fuerunt, imperiique omnis fic depravata ratio, ut deliberandi quidem deligendique nulla amplius copia fuppeteret. Quem vero fructum Gallicarum rerum converfio, quem exitum fit habitura, in tantâ rerum futurarum, quæ prudentiffimos quoque fallunt, obfcuritate, tantaque in cafuum humanorum inconftantia, quis aut profpiciat, aut fi quid fecum conjicere audet, id expromat? At Livii tamen, uti fæpe alias, ita hic Polybium fecuti, verba nunc fcribenti mihi in mentem veniunt: Adverfus confentientes nec regem fatis validum effe nec tyrannum."

ART.