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to their use, and, 2d, as to their derivation. Explain the origin and use of pronominal adjectives. What are demonstrative adjectives? 2. Distinguish between abstract nouns and adjectives attributive or numeral, in the following sentences :-I saw a black man with a flat nose and woolly hair. Let us reflect on the vanity and transient glory of this world. They came on the third day. The old hermit sat at the door to enjoy the coolness of the evening. His discourse was cheerful without levity, and pious without enthusiasm. I have lived fifteen years in solitude. "For the last eighteen hundred years, Greece has fed the human intellect; Rome, taught by Greece, and improving upon her teacher, has been the source of law and government and social civilisation; and what neither Greece nor Rome could furnish, the perfection of moral and spiritual truth, has been given by Christianity."—Arnold.

3. Apply appropriate adjectives to the following nouns :-sea, tempest, cavern, river, rivulet, tree, grove, waterfall, resolution, age, old age, way, boy, night, knight, account, truth.

4. Quote a sentence or make one involving the following adjectives-just, wise, human, humane, divine, military, legal, long, outward, seven, fanciful, ruinous, forty, civilized.

THE PRONOUN.

38. A PRONOUN is generally defined as being 66 a word that supplies the place of a noun ;" and the definition is correct so far as it goes. But the repetition of the noun would not in all cases express precisely the idea conveyed by the pronoun. The pronoun has an emphasis and individuality about it which no noun can have. The fact, then, that they prevent the too frequent repetition of the noun, is to be considered rather as an accidental advantage belonging to them, than as being a full account of their nature.

39. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Relative, and Interrogative.

40. The Personal Pronouns are three in number :-I, thou, and he, she, or it. I is used when the person speaking refers to himself; thou, when he refers to the person addressed; and he, she, or it, when he speaks of some other person or thing.

41. The exact nature and use of this part of speech are pointed out in the work we have already referred to :"In all speech there is a speaker; there is some person spoken to ;

and there is some person or thing spoken of. These objects constitute three classes, marks of which are perpetually required. Any artifice, therefore, to abridge the use of marks of such frequent recurrence was highly to be desired. One expedient offered itself obviously, as likely to prove of the highest utility. Speakers constituted one class, with numerous names; persons spoken to, a second class; persons and things spoken of, a third. A generical name might be invented for each class-a name which would include all of a class, and which singly might be used as the substitute of many. For this end were the personal pronouns invented, and such is their character and office. 'I' is the generical mark which includes all marks of the class speakers; 'thou' is a generical mark which includes all marks of the class persons spoken to; 'he,' 'she,' 'it,' are marks which include all marks of the class persons or things spoken of."*

42. All pronouns refer to some noun, which, as it generally goes before, gets the name of antecedent, but as it may come after, correlative would appear a better term. In the case of one class of pronouns, the reference is so obvious and immediate, that they have been called Relative, by way of distinction. These are, who, which, that, and as. Who is used when the reference is to a person; which, when it is to a thing; that and as refer either to persons or to things.

43. The Interrogative Pronouns, so called because they are used to ask questions, are who, which, what, and whether.†

When what is not used to ask a question, it gets the name of Compound Relative Pronoun, as it includes in itself the ideas of both correlative and relative; thus, "Give me what is in your hand," is equivalent to "Give me the thing which is in your

hand."

44. The inseparable word self, with its plural selves, is called the Reciprocal Pronoun, and denotes that the object and agent of the verb are the same. Self is added to per

* Mill's Analysis, &c., vol. i. p. 142.

In form they are like the relatives, and may still be considered as such-an obvious ellipsis being supplied. "Who did it?" Here who is an interrogative. "Show me the man who did it." Here who is a relative. The distinction between the two classes is very slight.

sonal pronouns for the same purpose that own is affixed to pronominal adjectives; that is, to express emphasis or opposition. Thus, "I did it with my own hand;" that is, without the assistance of any other person: "He did it all himself;" that is, without help.

EXERCISE IV.

1. Define the pronoun. In what respect is the common definition defective? Give an account of Mr Mill's theory of the pronouns. Since all pronouns have somewhat of a relative nature, how comes it that one class gets the distinctive name of relative pronoun? How many relative pronouns are there, and how are they used? How many interrogative pronouns are there? Prove that they are truly relatives. What does the word self added to a pronoun do?

2. Point out pronouns in the following sentences-if personal, state or write what noun they stand instead of; and if relative, to what they refer :

The two languages from which our primitives have been derived, are the Roman and Teutonic:-Johnson.

What is theory? The whole of the knowledge which we possess upon any subject put into that order and form in which it is most easy to draw from it good practical rules.-James Mill. Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player

That struts and frets his hour upon the stage.-Shakspeare. I must own I have such an indifferent opinion of the vulgar, that I am ever led to suspect that merit which raises their shout.— Goldsmith.

The undoubted tendency of the last three centuries has been to consolidate what were once separate states or kingdoms into one great nation.-Arnold.

I must now quit a subject upon which I have perhaps dwelt too long.-Hallam.

This was the last gleam of sunshine which fortune bestowed upon the conqueror who had so long basked in her smiles; henceforth, he was involved in one disaster after another, till he was precipitated from the throne.-Alison.

3. Supply the following blanks with appropriate pronouns:Vanity is a passion feeds on little gratifications, but re

quires

constantly.-Bulwer.

With such rapidity did Napoleon continue

the first man

accounts of

flight, that was

brought to the French capital authentic

defeat.-Alison.

Engaged in the pursuit of pleasure, the first Cæsars seldom showed

to the armies; nor were disposed to suffer, that indolence neglected should be usurped by lieutenants.-Gibbon.

those triumphs that

the conduct and valour of

Children sweeten labours, but

-Bacon.

make misfortunes more bitter.

Henry was anxious not only to repair

also to make amends for those iniquities into

driven father.-Hume.

misconduct, but

policy had

appears to

of

Connected with the last point, is another importance in studying military history, and that is, to apprehend correctly in every war are the merits of the quarrel.—Arnold.

THE VERB.

45. A VERB is a word that affirms something of a noun. 46. The characteristic of the verb is affirmation; it may, indeed, in common with the adjective, denote a quality; but this is accidental, and not essential to its nature. The attribute and the assertion are often conjoined in one word, as in the sentence "The man rejoices;" but they may be separated, and then an adjective will denote the attribute, and a verb will indicate the assertion; thus, "The man is joyful." It is but fair to add, that this doctrine of the verb is not universally received, although, after weighing the adverse arguments of Horne Tooke and Mr Mill, we are inclined to consider it well founded. It must be granted, that the verb does not complete the assertion, but yet it is more peculiarly connected with it. In the expression "John reads," both noun and verb are wanted; but we conceive the assertion to be more closely connected with reads than with John.

47. On attending carefully to the nature of the idea presented by verbs, we find that, while they all assert, they differ in this respect, that some of them express a sort of action which affects or operates upon some person or thing different from the agent, and that others either denote no action at all, or else a sort of action which is limited to the actor. The first class is called Transitive, and the second Intransitive Verbs. If the student consider with attention the state of his own mind when he repeats with intelli

gence the sentences, "James strikes the table," and "James walks," he will have no difficulty in discerning the distinction that exists between a transitive and an intransitive verb. The distinction between transitive and intransitive is not absolute, and in some cases it is very difficult to decide whether a verb belongs to the one class or the other. "Is John deaf?" "No; he hears well enough." In this case it might be argued plausibly enough that hears was transitive or intransitive. The full discussion of the distinction leads to metaphysical inquiries unsuited to this work. Perhaps, for practical purposes, we may say that a transitive verb gives an incomplete notion, whereas an intransitive gives a perfect idea by itself. "The boy "The boy runs," strikes,"-incomplete. Strikes what? -complete and satisfactory.

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48. We have already stated, but the importance of the remark will justify its repetition, that as the noun denotes the thing spoken about, so the verb indicates what we affirm concerning it. Without affirmation there could be no communication of sentiment; and hence the class of words by which affirmation is made has been dignified by the appellation of VERB, or the word. "Verbs must necessarily have been coeval with the very first attempts towards the formation of language. No affirmation can be expressed without the assistance of some verb. We never speak but in order to express our opinion that something either is or is not. But the word denoting this event, or this matter of fact, which is the subject of our affirmation, must always be a verb."-Adam Smith.

EXERCISE V.

1. Define the verb. What is the characteristic of the verb ? What part of speech does it most closely resemble? Into what two may it be resolved? What objection has been made to the common definition of the verb? Is it a valid one? In what respect are all verbs alike? In what respect do they differ? Into what classes are verbs divided? How has the name verb been appropriated by one part of speech? What is Adam Smith's opinion as to the origin of verbs?

2. Point out verbs in the following sentences, and distinguish between transitive and intransitive:

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