Every one is not able to stem the temptations of public life; and if he cannot conquer, he may properly retreat.-Johnson.

A strong sense of duty will indeed induce us to avail ourselves of all the talents we possess to act agreeably to the rules of absolute rectitude.-Stewart.

Edward proceeded homeward; but as he soon learned the quiet settlement of the kingdom, he was in no hurry to take possession of the throne, but spent near a year in France before he made his appearance in England.-Hume.

Houses are built to live in, and not to look on; therefore let use be preferred before uniformity.-Bacon.

Fanaticism obliterates the sense of humanity.-Gibbon.

The Spaniards, while thus employed, were surrounded by many of the natives, who gazed in silent admiration upon actions which they could not comprehend, and of which they did not foresee the consequences.-Robertson.

Age, that lessens the enjoyment of life, increases our desire of living.-Goldsmith.

THE ADVERB.

49. An ADVERB is a word that qualifies a Verb, Adjective, or another Adverb.

50. As a description of a fact in grammar, this is unobjectionable; but it cannot be received as a definition, since the word defined is made use of in the definition. Its application may be thus explained :-If we wish to modify the noun or subject of a sentence, we must use an adjective; but if the predicate is to be modified, or any additional modification to be put on a word already qualifying it, the word then used must be an adverb: thus, in the sentence, "The sun shines," we have a simple subject "sun," and a simple predicate, "shines." If we wish to express any quality of the subject, we must use an adjective; and if the predicate is to be modified, we must bring in an adverb: thus, "The bounteous sun shines," and "The sun shines equally on all."

51. Mr Mill says, that adverbs are always employed "for the purpose of putting a modification upon the subject, or the predicate, of a proposition." In this I think he is wrong. The adverb never modifies the subject of a proposition. In

the example given by himself, he allows this to be the case; nor am I aware that any of a contrary kind could be quoted. Sometimes, indeed, an adverb appears to modify a noun, but then the noun is used as a predicate. "Ships are but boards, sailors are but men." Boards here is equivalent to thin pieces of wood, and men to the adjective mortal.

52. Adverbs may be divided into four great classes :1. Adverbs of Manner; as, well, ill, justly, wisely. 2. Adverbs of Time; as, now, then, soon, when.

3. Adverbs of Place; as, here, hence, there, where. 4. Adverbs of Quantity; as, much, considerably.

The Adverb, it may be observed, is an abbreviated mode of expression, and the idea could in all cases be conveyed by the use of two or more words. They have a close affinity to adjectives, not only in English but in most other tongues. Ruddiman justly says, "That adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendiously in one word what must otherwise have required two or more." The truth of this doctrine will appear by an inspection of the following table of Adverbs of Place :

1. Define the adverb. In what respect is the common definition objectionable? Does the adverb modify the subject or predicate of the sentence? Into what four classes may adverbs be divided? Give instances of each of the four classes. Is the adverb an essential part of speech? With what class of words is the adverb most closely allied?

2. Change the adverbs in the following sentences into equivalent phrases :

He has been here often. They very wisely ordered that all should be burned instantly. The world is easily imposed upon. He came away extremely pleased with the success of his administration. I will readily grant you what you ask. His head sinks gradually low. We are always impatient of the present. Why with untimely sorrow heaves thy heart? The forces of the Revolution had hitherto basked only in the sunshine of prosperity. Great Britain and France were thus severally preparing for the contest.

There is something solemn and almost awful in the incessant advance of the great stream of civilisation, which in America is continually rolling down from the summits of the Alleghany mountains. Alison.

Peevishness is generally the vice of narrow minds.-Johnson.
Men in great place are thrice servants.-Bacon.

The project so happily formed and so amicably conducted failed of success.-Hume.

3. Change the following phrases into equivalent adverbs :

I have seen him do it many a time. He had been in this place before. Under few circumstances is it prudent to say much. It was, in truth, a very poor affair. He came off with great success. He at once dismissed them all. I shall, in few words, explain the circumstance. Six o'clock was the time at which the brothers were expected to rise. Winter has, in like manner, its pleasures. Narratives are, for the most part, heard without envy. On most occasions silent in the hall of debate, he in no long time gained the lead in the committee of management.

THE PREPOSITION.

53. A PREPOSITION is a word that connects two words together, in such a manner as to indicate the relation which the things or ideas signified by them bear to each other.

54. This part of speech, like the adjective, which it resembles in other respects, has received its name from an accidental circumstance. It generally goes immediately before the object related to the other thing named; but the essence of the preposition, it should be carefully observed, is to signify relative position.

55. Prepositions may connect

1. Nouns to nouns: as, a man with a dog; a man without a hat; a man of wealth; the tree by the fountain.

2. Adjectives to nouns: as, conducive to health; contemporary with Socrates; magnificent beyond conception; desirous of applause.

3. Verbs to nouns: as, he aspired to the throne; he reminded him of his perjury; he walked through the field. 56. The real nature and origin of prepositions, and the same is true of conjunctions, were subjects of dispute from the time of Aristotle; but Mr Horne Tooke has shown, in

the most satisfactory manner, that they are abbreviations, principally for nouns or verbs. The result of his labours will be laid before the student when we come to treat of Derivation. Meantime we would direct attention to the fact, that prepositions have two or more meanings-one literal, and one or more secondary.

"The lamp is above the table." "He is above a mean action." In the first example above is used in what we have here called its literal meaning, but in the second it bears a different sense.

57. The transition from the literal to the secondary meaning is a subject well worth notice, and is thus treated by a very able writer on general grammar :-" Though the original use of prepositions was to denote the relations of place, they could not be confined to this office only. They by degrees extended themselves to subjects incorporeal, and came to denote relations as well intellectual as local. Thus, because, in place, he who is above has commonly the advantage over him who is below, hence we transfer over and under to dominion and obedience. Of a king, we say, "he ruled over his people ;" of a common soldier, "he served under such a general." So, too, we say, with thought, without attention, thinking over a subject, &c. All which instances, with many others of the like kind, show that the first words of men, like their first ideas, had an immediate reference to sensible objects; and that in after-days, when they began to discern with their intellect, they took those words which they found already made, and transferred them by metaphor to intellectual conceptions."-Hermes, book ii. ch. iii.

58. The Prepositions at present in use are these,

EXERCISE VII.

1. Define the preposition. What is the characteristic of the preposition? From what circumstance did it receive its name? What part of speech does it most closely resemble? Wherein lies the similarity? What may prepositions connect? Are prepositions an original part of speech? Who has given the most satisfactory account of the origin of prepositions and conjunctions? Describe the probable process by which secondary meanings came to be attached to prepositions.

2. Quote or make sentences, each involving a preposition used, 1st, in its literal, and, 2d, in a metaphorical sense.

3. Point out the prepositions in the following sentences, and state whether they are used in their literal or metaphorical sense, and if metaphorical, trace the nature of the connexion between the two

senses:

An extensive contemplation of human affairs will lead us to this conclusion. Greatness confers no exemption from the cares of life. They saluted him with great respect. Some time after my retreat. Remarkable for beauty.

When I am in a serious humour, I very often walk by myself in Westminster Abbey, where the gloominess of the place and the use to which it is applied, with the solemnity of the building, and the condition of the people who lie in it, are apt to fill the mind with a kind of melancholy that is not disagreeable.-Addison.

The misery of jails is not half their evil; they are filled with every corruption which poverty and wickedness can generate between them.-Johnson.

Thus, within six weeks after the campaign had opened, Wellington had driven the French from the neighbourhood of Bayonne to Toulouse, a distance of two hundred miles; had conquered the whole country between the Pyrenees and the Garonne; had driven the enemy's forces from several works; defeated them in one pitched battle; crossed the raging flood of the Adour in the face of the garrison of Bayonne, below that fortress, and laid siege to it as well as St Jean Pied de Port, and finally brought about a revolution at Bordeaux, and a declaration in favour of the Bourbon dynasty from the third city in the empire.-Alison.

THE CONJUNCTION.

59. A CONJUNCTION is a word used to join words and propositions together.