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were collected and united into one completed whole, and what is the character of this collection in reference to its extent, its constituent elements, and its arrangement.

To show the integrity of the Old Testament Canon, we must set forth the history of the preservation, the propagation, the diffusion, and the treatment of the Old Testament by the Church at the principal epochs from the date of the close of the Canon till recent times. This will present to us, 1st, not only the changes of the text in external and internal form, but also the critical helps for restoring a genuine text, as given in the records which attest the text in different ages; 2d, the historical testimonies to its canonicity.

The unity of this double problem is due to the fact that both its parts are concerned with that one object whose origination, transmission, and canonical value we are to point out. And the scientific principle of all the historical and critical investigations by which the problem is to be solved, the principle from which they proceed, and to which they bring us back, is preserved in the concept of the Canon, which links the Church to the Old Testament, and ensures to historico-critical Introduction the character of an independent theological science (1). It never can attain to sure and stable results if it denies its true historico-critical character at any point; for instance, by surrendering the guidance of its investigations to ready-made conceptions of inspiration borrowed from systematic theology, or to critical prejudices which deny all immediate divine revelation on à priori grounds (2); or by conceding to so-called internal arguments, which are always more or less subjective, that foremost place to which well-authenticated historical testimonies are entitled (3).

(1) In the most rudimentary age of our science it received this name Introduction. Cassiodorus [who died later than 562], in his preface to his "Institutiones divin. literarum," calls them "introductorii libri," and styles his predecessors in this field "introductores scripturæ div." The Greek Adrianus also [at an uncertain date, perhaps the middle of the fifth century; it is chiefly an introduction to Biblical rhetoric: see Bleek, p. 6] already entitles his work upon the peculiarities of Scripture, εἰσαγωγὴ εἰς τὰς θείας γραφάς. It was only in last century that the pretty vague conception of Introduction was limited suitably to the nature of the subject, and the topics embraced in it as it was gradually forming, by the addition "historico-critical,”—

a term which has reference to the matter and also to the form of this study. Finally, in the most recent period, this name that has been so long in use has been rejected as "unsuitable, betokening an unscientific age and view," on the part of rationalistic writers (like Credner and Ed. Reuss on the New Testament, and on the Old by Herm. Hupfeld, über Begriff u. Methode d. sogen. bibl. Einleitung, Marburg 1844); and they propose instead to follow Rich. Simon, and to call it "History of the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testament, or of Biblical Literature,” pp. 3, 12 f. Certainly if historico-critical Introduction is nothing more than "a compilation useful for Biblical investigation of certain things necessary to be known before we can rightly view and deal with the Bible as a whole," which "is distinguished with tolerable exactness from other courses of study connected with literary investigations," only "by its reference to the history and historical relations and peculiarities of the Biblical books" (De Wette, Einl. § 1), then it is destitute equally of scientific principle and of internal organic connection of parts. On the contrary, if it is transformed into a history of Biblical literature, and even, according to a false abstract separation of the divine and the human in the canonical writings, merely "the letter" of them,—that is, their "external natural origin and connection," their "temporary shell or husk,”—be assigned to historical investigation and criticism (Hupfeld, p. 25 f.); then, along with any theological character, there is at the same time taken away from this study any positive importance for theology, which indeed it had already lost by the treatment of the rationalists. Nay, though we hold fast the inspiration of Scripture, with Delitzsch (Begriff u. Methode der sogen. bibl. u. insbes. alttestl. Einleitung, Zeitschrift f. Protestantism u. Kirche, N. S. xxviii. p. 133 ff.) and H. Aug. Hahn (in Herzog's Real-Encyclop. art. Einleitung in d. A. T.), still their transformation of historico-critical Introduction into a "history of Old Testament literary matter" thoroughly alters the position which this science has hitherto occupied in relation to evangelical Protestant theology, and its importance for the principle which Protestants maintain as to Scripture, without attaining any real compensating advantage to theological science in general, or to this branch of it in particular. We might say, further, that we need first to create an Old Testament literary matter, as distinguished from Old Testament Scripture, by hypotheses like Ewald's; and that if we strictly carry out the division of Old Testament literature according' to the periods of its development, so as to meet this demand for the historical treatment of it, not only are portions torn asunder which are as a matter of fact most closely linked together, but also, and in

connection with this, the clear knowledge of the idea of the Old Testament Canon and of its organic structure becomes obscured.

(2) The former procedure makes dogmatic theology the basis of Introduction; whereas, inversely, Introduction should furnish us with the premisses for the dogmatic determination and development of the Holy Scriptures and the Word of God by means of the historico-critical indications of the authenticity and credibility (fides humana et divina) of the canonical Scriptures. The latter, which "contemplates the Bible as a historical phenomenon in the same rank as other similar phenomena" (De Wette, § 4), imparts to Introduction a tendency hostile to theology and the Bible, by which truth never can be advanced.

(3) Compare Kleinert, üb. d. Echtheit der Jesaj. Weisagg. (Berlin 1829), i. p. xxxviii. ff.; Drechsler, d. Unwissenschaftlichk. im Gebiete d. Alttestamentlichen Kritik (Leipzig 1837), p. 31 ff.

§ 2. Division of the Subject.

The problem in the science of Introduction (§ 1) guides us plainly to the right distribution of its parts, which are two, corresponding to the two great questions that call for discussion. The First Part comprises the investigation of the origin and genuineness of the Old Testament; and it deals with

I. The literature in general: 1st, according to its course of formation and its character; 2d, according to the nature of its language.

II. The origin and genuineness of the individual books, according to their three classes in the Hebrew Canon 1st, the Pentateuch; 2d, the prophetical writings, both the historical and the predictive; 3d, the remaining writings, or Hagiographa, including the poetical, the prophetical (Daniel), and the historical.

III. The origination of the Canon, or the collection and union of these writings into one completed whole.

The Second Part gives a critical history of the transmission of the Old Testament, and of the treatment accorded to it, as a completed collection, in reference to

I. Its fundamental principles, in a short historical survey of the propagation and cultivation of the science of the Hebrew language.

II. Its means: 1st, in a general view and representation of the continued diffusion of the original text, (a) by unfolding, the changes which time produced in its outward form, (b) by a description of the manuscripts; 2d, in the diffusion of the Old Testament by the ancient versions, with notices of their origination, nature, and history.

III. Its influence on the contents of the Old Testament Scriptures, in a brief exhibition of the critical labours about the text, (a) unprinted, (b) printed.

IV. Its ecclesiastical authority and treatment: 1st, in the doctrine of the Canon-that is, the views of the Synagogue and the Christian Church (a) as to its extent and its constituent parts, (b) as to its higher or divine authority; 2d, in the consequent hermeneutical treatment of it (a) by the Jews, (b) in the Christian Church (1).

(1) The division, which has been long in use in books on the subject, into general and special introduction, with opposite arrangements of these as respectively the first and second parts, rests on no clear fixed principle, and is connected with the vague and fluctuating definitions of the entire study.

§ 3. History and Literature.

E. Fr. K. Rosenmüller, Handbuch f. d. Literatur d. bibl. Krit. u. Exegese, 4 vols. Göttingen 1797-1800 (in vols. i. and ii.). Gottlob Wilh. Meyer, Geschichte der Schrifterklärung seit d. Wiederherstellung d. Wissenschaften, 5 vols. Göttingen 1802-9. W. Gesenius, bibl. Einleitung, in Ersch u. Gruber allgemeine Encyclopædia der Wissensch., x Theil; also printed separately, Bibel, etc., Leipzig 1823. Hävernick, Handbuch d. hist. krit. Einl. in d. Alte Test. i. 1, p. 8 ff., 2d ed. Hupfeld, üb. Begriff u. Methode, p. 39 ff.

Historico-critical Introduction to the Old Testament was unknown in the early Church and during the middle ages. In those times the preponderating scientific interests of the Church-teachers were directed towards the contents of Scripture, to the defence of the faith against heathens and Jews, and to the development of dogma, and its justification against heretics; in which procedure its divine authority or inspiration was unanimously accepted: in fact, this was combated or

rejected, even by the heretics and the enemies of Christianity, only on dogmatic grounds. Besides, most of them wanted that knowledge of the Hebrew language which is indispensable to success in these historico-critical researches. All, therefore, that was accomplished in reference to this before the Reformation, was confined to hermeneutical rules, determinations about the biblical and canonical books of Scripture, with notices of their authors and their character, and accounts of translations and expositors; which constitute mere unimportant preparatory labours for our course of study (1).

(1) So the works: Augustine (died in 430), de doctrina christiana, libb. iv., in the third vol. of the Benedictine edition; published separately by G. Calixtus, Helmstädt 1629, 2d ed. 1655; and c. var. lectt. animadver. illustr. J. C. B. Tegius, Lipsiæ 1769, especially books ii. and iii. Junilii, episc. Afric. (in the year 550), de partibus divinæ legis libri duo ad Primasium episc. in max. Biblioth. patrum, tom. x. pp. 339-350; separately by Gastius, Basilea 1546; then Parisiis 1556; Francofurti 1603; also almost entirely transferred to Flacius, clavis Script. S. tract ii., only the first book relating to this subject. Magn. Aurel. Cassiodorus (died later than 562), institutiones divinarum literarum, in Opp. ed. Garet, Rothomag. 1679, Venetiis 1729, fol. ii. 508-27; separately edited by Jac. Pamelius, Antverp. 1565, Parisiis 1575 (the first book containing an Introduction to the Scriptures). Nicol. Lyrani (died 1340), notitia de libris bibl. canonicis et non canon., prefixed to his Postilla perpetua, Antverp. 1634, fol.-To Isagogic, in the more recent sense, the following works do not belong: Tichonius, de septem regulis; Adriani isagogæ sacr. litt.; Eucherii pia ad S. Script. opuscula; and Vincentii Lerin. commonitoria duo. Compare Hupfeld, p. 46 ff.

The Reformation, which rested everything on Scripture, first wakened up an all-embracing and enduring zeal for Biblical studies of every kind. At first, indeed, the predominant object was dogmatical discussion and the establishment of a system of doctrine; and so little attention was bestowed on investigations relating to Introduction (since there was no dispute as to the divine authority of Holy Scripture), that for a considerable time men were content with unimportant performances in this domain of science (2). Yet already in the seventeenth century, owing partly to the controversies between

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