"threshold," often from Judg. xix. 27 onwards: ?, "convocation," nineteen times in Ex., Lev., and Num., and copied in Isa. i. 13, iv. 5; afterwards "the law which was to be read in public,” Neh. viii. 8: D, "troughs of running water," Gen. xxx. 38, 41, Ex. ii. 16; afterwards only in Cant. vii. 6, meaning "flowing locks:", only Gen. xii. 5, xxxi. 18, xxxvi. 6, xlvi. 6; and the noun, Gen. xii. 5 and often, Num. xvi. 32, xxxv. 3, then first again in Dan., Ezra, and Chron. ; yet there it is used for "cattle," 2 Chron. xxxi. 3, through a mistake as to its original meaning in the Pentateuch, "lifeless possessions," as distinguished from those possessed of life: D", "thorns, pricks," Num. xxxiii. 55 and Josh. xxiii. 13; which afterwards is Day, Prov. xxii. 5, Job v. 5.

,צְנִינִים

(7) Comp. 2 (Piel), "to speak unadvisedly," Lev. v. 4, from which it is borrowed in Ps. cvi. 33, and N, Num. xxx. 7, 9; for which in Prov. xii. 18, 2, spelt with and in Kal: "something ground down," Lev. ii. 14, 16; afterwards D, "to break by rubbing," Lam. iii. 16, Ps. cxix. 20: ny, "sweat," Gen. iii. 19; afterwards, Ezek. xliv. 18: my, "vexation," Deut. xxviii. 25; afterwards, Isa. xxviii. 19, Jer. xv. 4, xxiv. 9, xxix. 18, xxxiv. 17, 2 Chron. xxix. 8 (only Ezek. xxiii. 46 has the old form again): ¡?i, "old age," Gen. xlviii. 10, and DP, Gen. xxi. 2, 7, xxxvii. 3, xliv. 20; whereas the usual form afterwards, p, occurs only in Gen. xxiv. 36: An, "dread," Gen. xxxv. 5, and nn, Gen. ix. 2, Job vi. 21, xli. 25; from the time of David, nan, Ps. lxxxix. 41, in Prov. seven times, and in Isa. liv. 14, Jer. xvii. 17, xlviii. 39; finally in Ezek.,

, eight times: Dyop, "dainty morsels," Gen. xxvii. 4, 7, 9, 14, 17, 31; afterwards ninyo, Prov. xxiii. 3, 6. Alongside of , "a lamb," there occurs thirteen times in Gen., Lev., Num., and Deut., the original [this is denied by Gesenius] form ?, keeping nearer to the etymology (Häv. Einl. i. 1, p. 198), which does not occur again: along with there is often in Num. xxii. and xxiii. the form 3, which is etymologically connected with P, "a chamber," Num. xxv. 8; nap, "the womb," ibid.; and P, "a part of the stomach." Instead of л, "kingdom," in the Pentateuch, we have the forms no, Josh. xiii. 12, etc., 1 Sam. xv. 28, etc.; and later, n, 1 Sam. xx. 31, Ps. xlv. 7, and very often in Chron., Dan., and Ezra; and the original form is more and more displaced by these. The Hiphil of

TT:

,"to lend," Deut. xv. 2, xxiv. 10 (as also the participle, Ex. xxii. 24), never occurs in a later age, but Kal alone: D, of the Levites, Num. iii. 9, viii. 16, 19, xviii. 6, and borrowed from these passages in 1 Chron. vi. 33; afterwards D, of the temple-bondsmen, 1 Chron. ix. 2, and often in Ezra and Neh.: 7, "to be

surety," only in Gen. xliv. 32, and jy, "pledge," Gen. xxxviii. 17, 18, 20; afterwards y, 1 Sam. xvii. 18, Prov. xvii. 18: pД, "to laugh," "to jest,” in Gen. twelve times, Ex. xxxii. 6; elsewhere only in Judg. xvi. 25, where, however, already the softened form pr occurs, as it does fifty-two times in the Old Testament, yet never in the Pentateuch, from which the original form is re-adopted only so late as in Ezek. xxiii. 32.

§ 16. The Language in the Age of David and Solomon.

The second or intermediate age of the Hebrew language reaches from Samuel to Hezekiah, attaining its zenith under David and Solomon. These kings accomplished much for the advancement of the life of the state and of the people as a whole, by wise and just administration, on which the blessing of God rested; and in the department of literature they did no less for the cultivation and development of the language, by services in accordance with their rich mental endowments. There are therefore good reasons for distinguishing this period by their names, though it must not be restricted to the time in which they reigned. Linguistic progress begins to be observable in the book of Joshua (1); yet it becomes of greater consequence under Samuel, in the books of Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, the essential elements of which belong to this age (2).

66

(1) In the disappearance of the archaisms (see § 15, Note 2). In new conceptions and expressions, like nia, Josh. i. 14, vi. 2, viii. 3, x. 7 (instead of na, Deut. iii. 18): 7, "skin-bottle," Josh. ix. 4, 13, Judg. iv. 19, etc. (for non, Gen. xxi. 14, 15, 19): 7, "to set on fire, to burn," Josh. viii. 8, 19, and very often in the subsequent books: ny," to come down," Josh. xv. 18, Judg. i. 14, iv. 21: 1, "prince, leader," Josh. x. 24, Judg. xi. 6, 11, etc.: DD, "princes" of the Philistines, Josh. xiii. 3, Judg. iii. 3, etc.; also in 1 Kings vii. 30, but in the sense of "axles :", "snare," Josh. xxiii. 13 (comp. § 15, Note 6): py, "to rest," Josh. xi. 23, xiv. 15, Judg. xviii. 7, 27, and very often afterwards. In peculiar formation of words, like na (comp. § 15, Note 7): 2, "report," Josh. vi. 27, ix. 9 (instead of v, Gen. xxix. 13, etc.): ann," supplication," Josh. xi. 20, 1 Kings viii. 28, etc. : NT, Joshi. xxii. 25 (instead of N, Deut. iv. 10, v. 26, etc.); although the book of Joshua rests very closely upon the usus loquendi, in the books of Moses, with which its contents are also most intimately connected; comp. § 15, Notes 3-5.

(2) New conceptions and words, formed in course of the progressive development of the domestic, civil, political, and religious life of the nation: ","to gird," 1 Sam. ii. 4, etc.: 7, "girdle,” 2 Kings i. 8, Job xii. 17, etc.; along with 727, Ex. xii. 11, Lev. viii. 7, etc.; ian, 1 Sam. xviii. 4, etc.; in, 2 Sam. xviii. 11 (Gen. iii. 7), etc.: Ma, "wine-press," Judg. vi. 11, Joel iv. 13, etc.: 7, Isa. lxiii. 3, Hag. ii. 16; along with P, Num. xviii. 27, 30, Deut. xv. 14, xvi. 13, Judg. vii. 25, etc.: 7, "a pot, a basket," 1 Sam. ii. 14, 2 Kings x. 7, etc.: D, "mire," 2 Sam. xxii. 43, etc.; "mortar," Isa. xli. 25; along with eh, mortar," Gen. xi. 3, "mire," Isa. x. 6, etc.: hp, 6, etc.: 5, "a young lamb," 1 Sam. vii. 9, Isa. lxv. 25; D, 1 Sam. xv. 4, Isa. xl. 11; whereas , "speckled, or spotted," Gen. xxx. 32, 33, 35, and "patched,” Josh. ix. 5: (see § 15, Note 2): min, "razor," Judg. xiii. 5, xvi. 17, 1 Sam. i. 11; along with "y, Num. vi. 5, viii. 7, Ps. lii. 4, etc. : 2, "to play a stringed instrument," 1 Sam. xvi. 16-18, 23, 2 Kings iii. 15, Ps. xxxiii. 3, etc.; whence, Ps. iv. 1, vi. 1, etc.; and later, Lam. iii. 63, "to cleave, to furrow," 2 Kings iv. 39, Prov. vii. 23, Job xvi. 13; and be, "a segment," 1 Sam. xxx. 12, Cant. iv. 3, or "a mill-stone," Judg. ix. 53, 2 Sam. xi. 21, Job xli. 16: a one," Ruth iv. 1, 1 Sam. xxi. 3, 2 Kings vi. 8: 77 and 77, 2 Sam. xviii. 9, 1 Kings i. 33, 38, etc.: 7, "to melt, to refine," Judg. vii. 4, xvii. 4, and often in the Psalms and the prophets: 72, crucible," Prov. xvii. 3, xxvii. 21:, "to be poor," Ps. xxxiv. 11; NT and , 1 Sam. xviii. 23, 2 Sam. xii. i. 3, etc.:, "poverty," Prov. vi. 11, x. 15, etc.: 7, "courser, horse," 1 Kings v. 8, Mic. i. 13; and D, Cant. i. 9, along with DD, Gen. xlvii. 17, and very often afterwards: 7, "prince," 1 Sam. ix. 16, x. 1, etc.; also two other words with the same meaning, namely the poetical , Judg. v. 3, Ps. ii. 2, etc., and the metaphorical nie, Judg. xx. 2, 1 Sam. xiv. 38: 7, "to surround," 1 Sam. xxiii. 26; "to crown," Ps. v. 13, viii. 6, etc.: 7, "a crown," 2 Sam. xii. 30, Ps. xxi. 4, etc.: n (Piel), "to surround," Judg. xx. 43, Ps. xxii. 13, etc.: nn, "the capital of a pillar," 1 Kings vii. 16-18, etc.; afterwards, "a crown," Esth. i. 11, ii. 17, vi. 8: 7, "shield," 1 Sam. xvii. 7, 41, 1 Kings x. 16, etc.; and

"such ","such "mule,"

, 2 Sam. viii. 7, Cant. iv. 4, along with 2, Gen. xv. 1, Deut. xxxiii. 29, Judg. v. 8, etc.: 7, "castle," Judg. ix. 46, 49, 1 Sam. xiii. 6: DD and "to plunder," Judg. ii. 14, 16, 1 Sam. xiv. 48, and very often nisa in very frequent from 1 Sam. i. 3, 11 onwards, but never previously: 2, 1 Sam. i. 9, iii. 3, etc., of the tabernacle ; 1 Kings vi. 5, etc., of the temple; properly "a palace," Amos viii. 3: 27, of the most holy place in the tabernacle, Ps. xxviii. 2; and of that in the temple, 1 Kings vi, 5, 16, etc.: Day, "to fast," Judg. xx.

26 (comp. § 15, Note 5): miny, Judg. i. 1, xx. 23, 27, etc.: p (Piel), "to burn incense," 1 Sam. ii. 16, Hos. iv. 13, 1 Kings xxii. 44, etc.; whereas in the Pentateuch we find only Hiphil, which afterwards maintains its ground along with Piel [see towards the end of Note 3, B.].

Add to these a great number of words in the books of Samuel, with which we do not previously meet in prose, chiefly belonging to poetical and prophetical language, like N, "to be sickly," 2 Sam. xii. 15; comp. Job xxxiv. 6, Isa. xvii. 11, etc., and its derivative wiN, in Deut. xxxii. 26 first, then very often in Psalms and Job: nye, "to scare," 1 Sam. xvi. 14, 15; comp. 2 Sam. xxii. 5, Isa. xxi. 4, and often in Job: 3, "to eat," 2 Sam. iii. 35, xii. 17, etc., and 3, "food," 2 Sam. xiii. 5, 7, 10; comp. л, Ps. lxix. 22, and лi¬?, Lam. iv. 10: 2, "to bring good news," 1 Sam. iv. 17, xxxi. 9, etc., and

,,'ז

, 2 Sam. iv. 10, xviii. 20, etc.; comp. the verb, Isa. xl. 9, etc. : П, "to cover," 2 Sam. xv. 30, Ps. lxviii. 14, Isa. iv. 5, Jer. xiv. 3, 4, Esth. vi. 12, vii. 8 (" to veil "), and 2 Chron. iii. 5 ff. (" to overlay" with gold, etc.); and the derivative , "canopied couch, bridal bed," Ps. xix. 6, Joel ii. 16: b (in Hiphil), “to cast down or forth," 1 Sam. xviii. 11, xx. 33; comp. Ps. xxxvii. 24, Prov. xvi. 33, etc.: >y, (Hiphil verb), "to profit," 1 Sam. xii. 21; comp. Prov. x. 2, xi. 4, and in Job and the prophets very often (in the Pentateuch there is only the word S, Deut. xiii. 14, xv. 9, which occurs elsewhere also): 7, "to pour or stream out," 2 Sam. xiv. 14, Ps. lxxv. 9, Mic. i. 4, etc.: 1, "to exult," 1 Sam. ii. 1, Ps. v. 12, ix. 3, etc., and thy, 2 Sam. i. 20, Ps. xxviii. 7, lx. 8, etc., Isa. xxiii. 12; thy, Isa. v. 14, and ry, Isa. xiii. 3, etc.; also D, Prov. vii. 18, Job xx. 18, xxxix. 13: P, "staggering," 1 Sam. xxv. 31; comp. p, Isa. xxviii. 7, Jer. x. 4, and P', Nah. ii. 11: (in Hiphil), 1 Sam. xv. 22, elsewhere only by the prophets (including 2 Chron. xx. 15) and poets, except once in prose, 2 Chron. xxxiii. 10, as once in Kal, Isa. xxxii. 3; whence, 1 Kings xviii. 29, 2 Kings iv. 31, Isa. xxi. 7: Dy (in Hiphil), " to thunder," 1 Sam. ii. 10, vii. 10, etc.; "to rouse, to irritate," 1 Sam. i. 6; then also in Kal, "to roar," of the sea, Ps. xcvi. 11, xcviii. 7, 1 Chron. xvi. 32; and Dy, "roaring" [Eng. ver. "the thunder" of the captains], Job xxxix. 25; “thunder,” Ps. lxxvii. 19, etc. (which in the Pentateuch is nibip, Ex. ix. 23, 29, 33, xix. 19 [and elsewhere, 1 Sam. xii. 18] and other words besides. To this class belongs also the use of ", “The Almighty," Ruth i. 20, 21; 7, "to meditate,” Josh. i. 8 (comp. 7, Ps. xc. 9), etc. Concerning the poetical colouring of the style of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and Samuel, comp. IIāv. Eini. i. 1, pp. 208 and 221.

The language attained to its highest degree of cultivation, however, in connection with the poetry which flourished gloriously under David and Solomon. Then for the first time it rightly developed the wealth and extent of its vocabulary, and also its intellectual force, and its capacity of assuming various forms for the expression of the most varied conceptions (3).

,יְהוָה =

=

nin, Ex.

(3) It is true that the stamina of lyric poetry exist in the poetical portions of the Pentateuch: comp. for instance, n," to come,' Deut. xxxiii. 2, 21; 2, "praise, psalm," Ex. xv. 2; xv. 2, xvii. 16;, Gen. xlix. 25; pin, "to shine forth," Deut. xxxiii. 2; p, "doctrine," Deut. xxxii. 2; 7, "instruction, chastisement," Deut. xi. 2; л, "perversity," Deut. xxxii. 20; an, "world," Ps. xc. 2, etc. Yet the language became enlarged, enriched, and modified to such an important extent, by cultivation subsequent to the age of Moses, that a multitude of new roots, forms, and meanings come into view for the first time; though of course some of these may have been in use sooner, of which we have no trace, on account of the limited extent of the sources of information to which we now have access. Such are

A. Roots and words :-", "foolish," Job v. 2, 3, Prov. vii. 22, and very often; 2, Prov. v. 23, etc.; as also ', Prov. i. 4, 22, etc., and in the Psalms too; and pp and 5pp (comp. § 15, Note 6): DON, "to stop" the ear, Prov. xvii. 28, Ps. lviii. 5, Isa. xxxiii. 15; "to close" a window, 1 Kings vi. 4, Ezek. xl. 16, etc.: 5, "to wither," 1 Sam. ii. 5, Ps. vi. 3, etc.: N, "to surround," Ps. xviii. 5, etc.: P', "bed of a river," Ps. xviii. 16, xlii. 2, Job vi. 15, etc.: D, "to trample," Ps. xliv. 6, lx. 14, Prov. xxvii. 7, etc.; pap, Isa. xviii. 2, 7, xxii. 5, and p, 2 Chron. xxii. 7; 2, Ps. x. 4, 6, etc.: 3, "terror," Ps. Ixxiii. 19, Job xviii. 11, 14, etc.: 1, "to select, purify," Job xxxiii. 3, Ps. xviii. 27, etc.; ia, "purity," Ps. xviii. 21, etc.: 5, "to exult," Ps. ii. 11, ix. 15, and very often; also as a noun, Ps. xlv. 16, etc.; and, Isa. xxxv. 2, lxv. 18: vy, "to be shaken, to stagger," Ps. xviii. 8, Job xxxiv. 20, Jer. v. 22, etc.: 7, "to thrust," Ps. xxxv. 5, etc.; 7, Ps. lvi. 14, cxvi. 8, and 7, Prov. xxvi. 28, derivative nouns: 7, "sigh," Ps. v. 2, xxxix. 4; 7, Ps. xlix. 4;

, Ps. ix. 17, etc.:(, 2 Sam. xx. 13), "to remove," Prov. xxv. 4, 5, Isa. xxvii. 8: fin, "wealth, resources," Ps. xliv. 13, Cant. viii. 7, Prov. i. 13, etc. (in the Pentateuch only the Hiphil verb, "to act with levity," Deut i. 41): 7, "to smite," Judg. v. 22, 26, Ps. lxxiv. 6, Isa. xxviii. 1, etc.; m, "mallet," Judg. v. 26, and ninap, "strokes," Prov. xviii. 6, xix. 29 (in the Pentateuch only