commonly, although not necessarily or invariably, are excited together. In such case, the appetite is much stimulated by the passion; as is evinced by the difference of feeling excited by a woman of a beautiful and engaging countenance, and one of dull or plain features, although the person of each may be equal in comeliness. The sensation in the one case will be strong, and fervent, and active; in the other, gross, and comparatively insipid. The appetite is, indeed, much more capable of being accelerated and heightened by the passion, than the passion is by the appetite, although both are usually excited together, and aid each other. The passion is, however, much less frequently, and less liable to be excited than is the appetite. Comparatively few objects can call forth the former, while the latter may be roused by almost any object capable of gratifying it. The passion of love is therefore totally distinct both from affection and animal attachment, as also from the appetite of concupiscence; and although affection and concupiscence, when strongly excited, may produce in part the same effects as this passion, especially in animals who possess them both in common with man, yet they will be found, in their constitution, totally varying and distinct from this passion. We may therefore conclude that animals are not endowed with love in any degree, but only with affection or animal attachment; and with the appetites and certain of the emotions which contribute to constitute this passion. The passion of love, moreover, when considered in all its constituents, is of a more refined and more intellectual nature than any endowment of this description which they are capable of possessing. The nearest resemblance to this passion among animals, is the instance occasionally afforded among birds of one dying of grief for the loss of its mate. It should be observed however, here, that attachment or affection is quite sufficient to occasion this poignant feeling, without the passion of love; as parents, who are actuated by the former feelings only, have died of grief for the loss of their children, and children for the loss of their parents. Besides, as already observed, the essential characteristics of the passion of love are entirely wanting in animals. Where, however, in any case, one particular passion, or feeling, or endowment, is absent, those allied to it will be proportionately stronger, and in a great measure supply the defect; as may be also observed with regard to the loss of one of the senses, or deficiency in one of the intellectual capacities.

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5. Causes principally contributing to the Vivacity and Energy of the Passions.

The passions appear to be dependent for their vivacity and energy, upon several distinct and separate circumstances, which may, however, all be resolved into the two following causes: first, the peculiar nature and constitution of the mind of the individual in whom they are excited; secondly, the peculiar nature and constitution of the material frame of such person.

As regards the minds which are most susceptible of excitement by passion generally, those which are constantly liable to emotion, and to be affected by trivial and petty causes, are the most easily roused. Persons of weak or little minds, fall a ready prey to each passion by which they are assailed; and, on the other hand, nothing more certainly evinces this littleness of mind, than the susceptibility to be moved by such trifling attacks. But those minds which are the most vigorous and the most powerful, and consequently the least liable to be roused to passion by unimportant circumstances, are also the most energetic in the development and operation of passion, when once excited. Hence, men of strong minds are generally also men of strong passions; although, on the other hand, men of strong passions are often men of weak minds. The reason of this, in the former case, is that, the passions forming an actual part of the soul, indeed a portion of its powers, if the one be strong, it would seem to follow, almost as a necessary consequence, that the other must be so too. But, in the latter case, it may happen that the strength of the passions is owing to the weakness of the intellectual and higher powers, by which the passions ought to be restrained. Here, however, it will generally be observed that the passions are not actually energetic or powerful, as in the former case; but are active and influential, merely because they are not kept in restraint. This is more especially to be seen where the bodily constitution is very perfect, and all the organs through which the constituent emotions of either of the passions originate, or are exercised, are in full vigour. Both in the moral and the material world, influences are often reciprocal; and it is frequently difficult to ascertain which, out of two operations, is the cause, and which is the effect. A sound body is sometimes said to be the result of a well-ordered mind, and of an evenness and stability of temper; whereas, the real fact is, that the evenness and stability of temper are mainly caused by the sound condition of the material frame.

Mental and moral discipline produce also very important results as regards the control to which the passions ought ever to

be subject. Nevertheless, how far, and in what particular mode, the passions, and also the appetites and emotions, are affected by the cultivation of the mind, is a point which it appears difficult exactly to ascertain. We may, however, infer that, while the passions become less vigorous, they also grow more acute in consequence of this discipline. What they lose in force, they gain in intensity. While their medial constituents are thereby debilitated, their mental constituents are increased and invigorated. Thus, love is probably as pure and as fervent in an uneducated as in an educated person; and anger is as vehement in the one as in the other. In these two cases they will however differ much as to the mode both of their operation and manifestation; and also as regards the particular causes most calculated to excite them.

Each of the passions appears, moreover, to have a direct, immediate, and special relation to, and connexion with its corresponding constituent emotion; as terror to pain, anger to irritation and also to pain, and love to pleasure.

Nevertheless, the passions, although originating in the impulses of the soul, are at once communicated to the body, and are evinced through the operation of the latter, to such an extent indeed that they are ordinarily mainly regarded as material agitations. The passions therefore depend in part on the body, and in part on the mind. Probably, different passions differ as to the relative degree in which they are swayed by, or dependent upon the contending influences of the system; and it may perhaps be inferred that terror depends mainly on the body, anger equally on both mind and body, and love mainly on the mind." Sometimes, however, instead of the strength of the material frame directly conducing to the strength of the passions, it may happen that the weaker is the material frame in any individual, the stronger will be his passions, as he is then less able to resist the impulses of the soul in which passion originates; although, on the other hand, a vigorous body is, of course, the most capable of affording full vent to whatever impulses or agitations are communicated to it.

The passions are also dependent, alike for the facility with which they are excited, and also for the vigour of their operation, both on the individual constitution, and on the particular condition, of the material frame, more especially as regards its organization, texture, temperament, and fluids. Thus an irritable frame, from whatever cause, is ever liable to the excitement of passion, however slight the occasion. Indeed, the same causes which affect the emotions constituent of passion, must necessarily also to a large, if not to a corresponding extent, affect the passions also. In all these respects, not only do particular persons vary much from each other, but the same per

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sons at different times also vary in an equal degree, more especially as regards texture, temperament, and irritability.

In the excitement of the passions, the senses, in every case, do not directly aid, although indirectly they do as regards the sensations which contribute to the excitement of passion. In many cases, even the emotions do not so much contribute here by their present excitement, as by the remembrance of them which is called forth in the mind regarding what we have lately endured from their impulses. The mental emotions of joy and grief, and of irritation, are those from which the passions mainly and directly, although not solely and entirely spring. The corporeal emotions of pleasure and pain may also produce them, although not so fully calculated to do so. The passions are, however, not so easily excited as are the emotions or the appetites, and may lie dormant for a long period. Indeed, the wear and tear of constantly excited passion, would be too trying for the strongest constitution to endure. A man ceaselessly beset by passion, is like a country constantly ravaged by war, in which all social and civilized institutions are annihilated.

Although the passions have no corporeal organs like the appetites, through which they are exercised, and by which their operations are manifested; yet the various changes which take place in the material frame when passion violently agitates the soul, display the operation of this excitement as fully as though the passions had each of them such organs especially adapted for their exercise. Indeed, to this extent the countenance is in result, if not in reality, the corporeal organ of each of the passions.

Probably, as a general rule, passion is the most vehement in the male, but the most easily roused in the female sex. In both sexes it is most vigorous in mature age, but most excitable during youth.

6. Progress and Development of the Passions.

In the progress of passion, it is more strictly development than growth which really takes place. While growth is ever steady and direct and certain, development is ordinarily eccentric and indirect and varying. The passions are also more irregular and uncertain, and more vigorous and influential in their excitement, than are the appetites, proportionably as the appetites exceed in each of these respects the emotions. The passions, moreover, advance less perceptibly than do the appetites, being dependent, not on the body, but on the soul; although as the latter acquires maturity, or rather as the organs through which it is exercised attain perfection, they are more clearly developed.

Passion in its operation nearly resembles the increase and

advancement of flame in the destruction of an edifice. At first the element rises gently, gaining power at each stage in its progress, and is then easily repressed. When, however, the conflagration has reached its height, it obtains the entire mastery over everything calculated to afford it fuel, and each object around becomes subjected to its fury.

Passion, originating in the soul rather than in the body, is less affected by any difference in age than are the appetites, correspondingly with the case of the emotions springing from the soul. During infancy and early youth, the passions are however more active, although less powerful than in maturity and advanced age. Like shallow rivulets, in the former period they foam, and cast their spray, and create a great agitation; but only when the stream has become wider and deeper, do they acquire any considerable force. The passions appear to be strongest, and to have the most influence during youth and maturity, because at that period the animal spirits are high, and the material frame is more excitable. The reason has, consequently, then less control over the conduct than later in life. Moreover, during middle age, the passions seem more vigorous, because the motives, which should operate to their restraint, are not so influential then as they are in the decline of life, and after we have acquired more experience. But during maturity, the passions themselves are in reality more powerful and more energetic, although less easily excited, than in youth. Nevertheless, as age advances, the medial influences decline in their power, and the mental part of our nature acquires more the ascendancy. On the other hand, by habitual indulgence, the medial influences gain strength with age, and by exercise the passions themselves increase in vigour; while the more extensively they are restrained, the more completely will they be brought into subjection.

The passions having entirely and solely relation to objects which are external, their development is necessarily more or less dependent upon our social position, and the opportunities which are presented for holding intercourse with others. In the case of a solitary person, they must consequently be developed very slowly, and would probably never arrive at maturity; while, in the case of one who is surrounded by other social beings, the passions may be very early developed, each occurrence in relation to any other social being, contributing more or less to the excitement, and consequent gradual development, of one of the passions. Terror is, perhaps, the least dependent upon our relation with other creatures of the same nature with ourselves, and love is the most so. Any being in connexion with us that is an active and a free agent, may contribute to develope the passion of anger.

But although the passions are gradual, and often late in their