§. 90. ON POETRY.

Poetry had its origin in the first ages of the world, when undisciplined feelings and a lively imagination naturally supplied strong expressions, gave modulation to the voice, and motion to the limbs; hence poetry, singing, and dancing, were contemporaneous in origin. As far back as the time of Moses, poetry, not only among the Hebrews, but also among some other nations, had reached a great degree of perfection, Exod. xv.; Deut. xxxii. comp. also the book of Job. It continued to flourish among the Hebrews for almost 1000 years. The design of it was not merely to excite pleasure, but also to preserve historical narrations, which were so written that they might be sung on special occasions; but it was particularly the object of this art, to declare in the most affecting and pleasing manner the praises of the Deity, and to excite the people to good and to praiseworthy works; see the books of Psalms, Job, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes.

§. 91. CHARACTER OF THE HEBREW POETRY.

Hebrew poetry, like the genuine poetry of all other nations, is characterised by ardent feelings, splendid thoughts, a great variety of beautiful images, strength of expression, condensation, and elegance. But it is distinguished in a number of particulars from the poetry of the western nations.

I. The metaphors, comparisons, etc., are more bold and eccentric; a point, which is capable of receiving much light from a collation of Arabic poems.

II. The ornaments, by which a subject is enriched in Hebrew poetry, are derived from the state of things, as they exist in the east, especially Palestine:

(1) From the natural objects of that region, from Lebanon and its cedars, from Carmel, from the oaks of Bashan, from the gardens, the vineyards, and the forests, which enrich the land, and from the animals, namely, the oxen, the lions, the gazelles, etc., that tread upon its surface;

(2) From the occupations of husbandmen and shepherds; (3) From the history of the nation;

(4) From the manners exhibited in common life, even from its vices, as drunkenness, fornication, and adultery;

(5) From oriental mythology, which, in many respects, cor

responds with the Greek and Roman. We find, for instance, mention made of the chamber of the sun, Ps. xix. 5, 6, but there is this difference:-the orientals do not convey him on a chariot, like the Greeks and Romans, but make him fly with wings, Ps. cxxxix. 9; Mal. iv. 2. The thunders are borne on chariots, but these chariots are not drawn by horses, but by cherubim, `?, monsters that are symbolical of the clouds, Ezek. i. 4-28; Ps. xviii. 10; xcix. 1. We find a golden age mentioned, Is. ii. 4; xi. 6-9; xxiv. 23; xxx. 24-28; 1x. 19, 20; 1xv. 4-25; lxvi. 1-5; the regions of the dead are also spoken of, sheol or hades, bis, ads, into which descend not only soldiers, heroes, emperors, and all who die, but also, by a figure of speech, conquered nations and states, and even trees, the symbols of states. The warriors repose in this wide abode on couches, with their armour placed beneath their heads, Is. xiv. 9-20; Ezek. xxvi. 20; xxxi. 14-18; xxxii. 7, 8; Matt. xvi. 18. We find mention likewise of the rivers of hades, the waves of death, Ps. xviii. 4-6; 2 Sam. xxii. 5; and of a political heaven, which can be shaken, and the moon and the stars thereof be obscured or cast down with great confusion and overthrow, Is. xxiv. 21—23; xxxiv. 4; lxv. 17; Amos, viii. 9, 10; Hag. ii. 6. 21; Matt. xxiv. 29.

III. The poems in the Hebrew language may have been measured by means of a certain number of syllables or words; but we have reason to believe, that the rhythm consisted chiefly in the parallelism. The parallelism, which is sometimes synonymous, sometimes antithetical, and sometimes shows itself merely in the construction, independent of the sense, consists in many cases of only two members, see Ps. cxiv. 1-8; in other instances there are three members, see Hos. vi. 1, 2; in other instances there are four members, the first answering to the third, and the second to the fourth, see Deut. xxxii. 42. Sometimes the parallelism displays itself in five verses or members, the two first and the two last being parallel, and the middle one unequal, Is. xxxi. 4, or the first being parallel to the third, and the second to the fourth, and the fifth being unequal, see Ps. xix. 8~10. In some instances the poetry may be called irregular, i. e. incapable of being reduced to the more common forms of parallelism, Ps. cxiii. 5, 6; Micah, i. 4. These traits in the Hebrew poetry, when well understood, afford very considerable aid in the

interpretation and criticism of the Bible, as for instance in such passages as Ps. lxxvii. 18, 19; cxxxix. 20; Is. xlvii. 11; xlix. 6. 16. One may find in the parallelisms in various places, a similarity in the cadences, which gives to them a more than ordidinary musical effect, and seems to be the result of art, see Judg. xiv. 18; Prov. vii. 13-15; xxix. 17; Is. xxvi. 20, 21; xl. 24; xlix. 8; li. 1, 2—5. 8 ; liii. 6, 7; Zech. xi, 1.

§. 92. ON MUSIC.

Music is coeval with poetry. Musical instruments were the invention of Jubal, Gen. iv. 21, and, as early as Gen. xxxi. 27, we are introduced to a whole choir. Afterwards music and poetry went hand in hand, and with equal step. The poet himself sung his own poems and accompanied his voice with some instrument. Both music and poetry were highly valued, and without doubt as long as poetry was cultivated, music was equally So. The music of the Hebrews may be thought to have been too loud and noisy; but opinion depends much on personal habits and experience.

§. 93. USES OF MUSIC AMONG THE HEBREWS.

The Hebrews were in the habit of having music at marriages, on birthdays, on the days which reminded them of victories over their enemies, at the inauguration of their kings, in their public worship, and when they were coming from afar to attend the great festivals of their nation, Is. xxx. 29. In the holy tabernacle and the temple, the Levites were the musicians, but on other occasions any one might use musical instruments. There was, however, this exception; the holy silver trumpets were to be blown only by the priests, who, by the sounding of them, proclaimed the festivals, assembled the leaders of the people, and gave the signal for battle and retreat, Numb. x. 1-10. David, in order to give the best effect to the music of the tabernacle, divided the four thousand Levites into twenty-four classes, who sung psalms, and accompanied them with music. Each of these classes was superintended by a leader, 2, and they performed the duties which devolved upon them, in weekly courses in succession, 1 Chron. xvi. 5; xxiii. 4, 5; xxv. 1-31; comp. 2 Chron. v. 12, 13. The classes collectively, as a united body, were superintended by three directors. This arrangement was subse

quently continued by Solomon after the erection of the temple, and it was preserved until the overthrow of Jerusalem took place. It was, however, sometimes interrupted during the reign of the idolatrous kings, but was restored by their successors, 2 Chron. v. 12-14; xxix. 27; xxxv. 15. It was even continued after the captivity, Ezra, iii. 10; Neh. xii. 45-47; 1 Mac. iv. 54; xiii. 51. It should be remarked, however, that music and poetry were much deteriorated after the captivity.

,

§. 94. STRINGED Instruments.

1. THE HARP, 2. This was the most ancient of this class of instruments, Gen. iv. 21. It was sometimes called sheminith, , or eight-stringed, 1 Chron. xv. 21, although it appears from the coins or medals of the Maccabean age, there were some harps, which were furnished with only three strings. The harp, therefore, was of two kinds, one only of which is distinguished in Hebrew by a separate name, viz. that called sheminith, In Greek the three-stringed harp is called Kápa, the other Kúpa, for these two words appear to be used with some distinction of this kind in 1 Mac. iv. 54. Josephus in his Jewish Antiquities, vii. 10. 3, assigns ten strings to the harp, an evidence that in his time the number of them had been increased. It is conjectured that this instrument was originally played with the hand only; but in the time of Josephus a small bow (plectrum) was used, which act is denominated in Hebrew by the words , 727,

The ancient harp appears . זְמַר and even ,נִבָּא הָמָה, שָׁאָה

to have been called by the Babylonians and , Dan. iii. 5. 7. 10. 15.

II. THE NABLIUM, or PSALTERY,, váßλa, vaðλa. It is first mentioned in the psalms of David. In Psalm, xxxiii. 2; and cxliv. 9, it is called, a ten-stringed instrument; but in Ps. xcii. 3, it is distinguished from it. Josephus, Antiq. vii. 10. 3, assigns to it twelve strings; probably it sometimes had ten and sometimes twelve strings. It was played with the fingers; the act of playing it is expressed in Hebrew by the word. It resembled in form a right angled triangle, or the Greek Delta inverted, v. The body of it was of wood and hollow, and was enclosed with a piece of leather tightly drawn. The chords were extended on the outside of the leather, and were fixed at one end into the transverse part of the triangular body of the

but

instrument. Such is its form at the present day in the east, it has only five strings in its modern shape, 2 Sam. vi. 5; 1 Kings, x. 12. There was another instrument of this kind used in Babylon; it was triangular in form, in Greek it is called σaμßúkŋ, in Hebrew, and 22; it had originally only four, but subsequently twenty strings, Dan. iii. 5. 7. 10. 15.

The chords of stringed instruments are denominated

2, Ps.

cl. 4. At first they were twisted from flax or some similar substance; but subsequently were manufactured from the entrails of sheep. Chords of the latter kind are mentioned by Homer as a recent invention.

§. 95. WIND INSTRUMENTS.

I. THE ORGAN, (so called in the English version;) in Hebrew , uggab, Gen iv. 21. It may be called the ancient shepherd's pipe, corresponding most nearly to the oúgy, or the pipe of Pan among the Greeks. At first it consisted of only one or two, but afterwards of about seven pipes, made of reeds, and differing from each other in length. The instrument, called mashrokitha, used in Babylon, Dan. iii, 5; was of a similar construction.

chalil,

II. nechiloth and 2 nekeb, are wind instruments resembling the one just described, made of various materials, such as wood, reeds, horns, and bones. As far as we can judge from the three kinds of pipes now used in the east, the Hebrew instrument called nechiloth is the one that is double in its structure, chalil is perhaps the one of simpler form, having a single stem with an orifice through it, while nekeb answers to the one without an orifice, Isaiah, v. 12; xxx. 29; Jer. xlviii. 36; Psalm, v. 1; Ezek. xxviii. 13.

, סִיפְנְיָא or according to the marginal reading ,סוּמְפּוֹנְיָה .III

Dan. iii. 5, 10; was a wind instrument made of reeds, by the Syrians called sambonja, by the Greeks samponja, and by the Italians zampogna. According to Servius, it was of a crooked shape.

IV. THE HORN OR CROOKED TRUMPET, ?. This was a very ancient instrument. It was made of the horns of oxen, which were cut off at the smaller extremity, and thus presented an orifice, which extended through it. In progress of time ¡ams' horns were hollowed and employed for the same purpose. This