4. Lion,, couchant or standing, sacred to Horus. Examples are very common in faïence. Frequently the body of the lion has a lion's head at each end of it, and sometimes there is a lion's head at one end and a bull's head at the other; on the back, between the two heads, is the disk of the sun, the whole representing the sun on the horizon, . The two heads, facing in opposite directions, are supposed to represent the south and north, i.e., the sun's course daily. An example in which each lion's head has two faces, one looking towards the south and the other towards the north, is figured in Lanzone, Dizionario, tav. CVI.

5. Sphinx,, couchant or sitting on his haunches, sacred to Harmakhis. Figures in bronze and faïence are tolerably common. The Sphinx at Gîzah is the symbol of Her-em-ȧakhu-t, or Horus on the Horizon.

Sphinx.

6. Bull, sacred to Apis, having disk and uraeus between his horns, and the figures of a vulture with outspread wings, and a winged scarab on his back, and a triangular blaze on his forehead. Figures in bronze and stone are more common than in faïence.

7. Ram,, sacred to Khnemu or Amen-Ra; figures in bronze and faïence are tolerably common.

8. Cat, sacred to Bast, lady of Bubastis. Large votive figures of the cat were made of bronze and wood, the eyes being inlaid with obsidian and gold; B.M. 22927 has the eyes, and a large number of the hairs of the body, inlaid with gold. The smaller figures worn for ornament by the votaries of Bast are made of bronze, stone, rockcrystal, lapis-lazuli, faïence, etc.; in the smaller figures the cat is

represented with one, two, or more kittens, and the top of the s

sceptre is often ornamented with a cat.

9. Jackal,, sacred to Anpu (Anubis), or to Up-uatu. In bronze figures, which are numerous, he stands on a pedestal which fitted on to the top of a sceptre or staff; faïence figures are not very common. A large number of wooden models from the top of sepulchral boxes are known.

10. Hare,, sacred to Osiris Unnefer; figures in faïence are

common.

11. Sow,, sacred to Set (?), was the abomination of Horus,

Jam according to Chapter CXII of дов

the Book of the Dead; figures of this animal in faïence are fairly common. B.M. 11897 has a head at each end of its body.

12. Hippopotamus,, sacred to Set, or Typhon; many large and beautiful examples of this animal in glazed faïence and steatite exist in public and private collections.

13. Stag, Figures in which the animal is represented with its legs tied together ready for sacrifice are known in bronze, e.g., B.M. 1696.

14. Hedgehog, a few examples of which, in bronze and faïence, are known.

15. Shrew-mouse, sacred to Horus (?), examples of which are more common in bronze than in faïence.

16. Ichneumon. Examples in bronze, in which the animal wears disk and horns and plumes, are known, but figures in faïence

are rare.

17. Crocodile,, sacred to Sebek; examples in bronze and faïence are fairly common.

19. Hawk,, sacred to Horus; votive figures are made of bronze, stone, and wood, and the hawk wears either the crown of Upper or Lower Egypt, or both crowns united. In smaller figures, worn for ornament, it wears a disk (B.M. 1889) or (B.M. 1850), or plumes (B.M. 1859); it is often man-headed, when it represents the soul, and sometimes two hawks are on one pedestal, and each has the head of a man. A form of Horus, worshipped in Arabia under the name of Sept, is often found in hard stone and wood; figures made of the latter material are generally found on the small chests which cover the portions of human bodies placed

in the pedestals of Ptah-Seker-Åsår figures. When complete they have plumes on their heads.

20. Ibis,, sacred to Thoth; figures in bronze and faïence are

not rare.

21. Frog; figures in bronze and faïence are common.

22. Fish, . The five kinds of fish of which figures in bronze and faïence are known are the Oxyrhynchus, Phagrus, Latus, Silurus, and the Lepidotus; of these the Oxyrhynchus, Silurus, and Lepidotus are the commonest. The Oxyrhynchus fish (B.M. 1953) has on its back horns, disk, and uraeus; fish were sacred to Hathor, Isis, Mut, and other goddesses.

23. Scorpion, , sacred to Serqit. Figures in bronze have often a woman's head on which are horns and disk, and, if mounted, the sides of the base have inscriptions upon them which show that the scorpion was regarded as Isis-Serqit. Faïence figures of this reptile are tolerably numerous.

24. Uraeus,

,

or serpent, sacred to or emblem of Meḥen, W

or Mersegert, figures in bronze and faïence

are not rare.

25. Scarab,, emblem of the god Khepera. The largest scarab known is preserved in the British Museum (Southern Egyptian Gallery, 74), and is made of green granite; it was probably a votive offering in some temple, and was brought from Constantinople, whither it was taken after the Roman occupation of Egypt. The scarabs worn for ornament round the neck, and in finger-rings, were made of gold, silver, every kind of valuable stone known to the Egyptians, and faïence. B.M. 11630 is an interesting example of a horned scarab; B.M. 2043, in faïence, has the head of a hawk, and B.M. 12040 has the head of a bull.

26. The camel,, gemla (?), Copt. xamarλ1, was known to the pre-dynastic Egyptians, and earthenware figures of the animal were found at Nakâdah.

27. The ostrich,

୪
@

nu, was well known to the

Egyptians of all periods, and the eggs of the bird,

, were buried with the dead. An ostrich egg-shell, perforated at one end, was found in a pre-dynastic grave at Khizâm (B.M. 36377). Figures of the bird are unknown.

28. The bear,

ruabu, was known and hunted

by the pre-dynastic Egyptians, but no figures of the animal have

been found.

389

VESSELS IN EARTHENWARE, STONE, GLASS, ETC., FOR OFFERINGS TO THE DEAD

THE pre-dynastic Egyptians made offerings of various kinds of food to their dead, such offerings being packed in earthenware vessels, which were placed near the dead in their graves. The use of the potter's wheel was unknown, and all such vessels were shaped by the hand or foot of the potter. They vary greatly in shape and size, and though in form and substance and colour many appear to be duplicates, it will be found by the use of the measure and callipers that very few are exactly identical. The oldest pottery vases are usually red and black, the red colour being derived from a salt of iron; sometimes vases all red and all black are found, but they are relatively few. All three kinds were burnished. In the Archaic Period unburnished, buff-coloured pottery came into fashion, and these vases are decorated with designs, drawn in red outline, representing primitive African farm settlements with ostriches grazing near them, boats, some with sails, figures of animals and human beings, palm-trees, etc. To this period belong probably the vases that have wavy handles or are decorated with a rope border. A fine collection, containing many good examples of all the kinds of earthenware vessels mentioned above, will be found in the British Museum (Sixth Egyptian Room). For descriptions and illustrations of pre-dynastic and early dynastic pottery vases in other collections see de Morgan, Recherches, Paris, 1896, and Premières Civilisations, Paris, 1909; Reisner, Early Dynastic Cemeteries, Leipzig, 1908, Pt. I, pl. 51ff.; Quibell, Archaic Objects (Cairo Catalogue), 2 vols., Cairo, 1904-5; von Bissing, Tongefässe, Cairo, 1913; Petrie, Naqada, London, 1896, etc., Royal Tombs, Abydos, Parts I-III; Naville, Cemeteries of Abydos, and other works published by the Egypt Exploration Fund.

Little by little during the Archaic Period stones of various kinds were used in making sepulchral vessels, and many beautifully shaped bowls, dishes, saucers, vases and pots were made in granite, diorite, basalt of various colours, porphyry, etc. A large number of bowls, with lugs and flat rims, made of red and yellow breccia, were obtained from Al-'Amrah, near Abydos, and typical examples of these are B.M. 35699, 53886, 36331 and 43061. The boring and polishing of these vessels prove that under dynasties I-III the worker in stones had already acquired wonderful skill. Characteristic specimens of the sepulchral vessels of this period are to be seen in the British Museum. But working in granite and diorite was no easy matter, even for the skilled workman, and vases made in these and other hard stones must have been expensive luxuries; and it was probably these considerations that led to the introduction of alabaster and aragonite and to their extended use. From the IVth dynasty

onwards countless vases, bowls, saucers, pots, jars, jugs, †, †, I, 8, 8, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, were made in these

materials; in the Graeco-Roman Period marble took the place of alabaster. Sepulchral pots from Nubia, of native workmanship, are usually made of sandstone. The beautiful shapes of alabaster vessels for perfumes, oils, etc., are well illustrated by the British Museum Collection. Alabaster vases were often inscribed on the covers or sides with the names of the persons for whom they were made, and when the names are those of kings and other royal personages they serve to date the object. One of the Persian kings of Egypt had his names engraved on alabaster vases in Egyptian and cuneiform characters (B.M. 91456). Some of the large aragonite, or zoned alabaster," vases appear to have been used as measures for liquids, e.g., B.M. 4839, a handsome example with two handles and a cover, and bearing a statement as to its capacity, which reads eight hen1 and three-quarters." Sepulchral vases were also made of glazed steatite, e.g., B.M. 4762, a blackand-green vase inscribed with the prenomen and nomen of Thothmes I

demed like Rā. Among the sepulchral vases of Thothmes III were some made of solid gold, with the king's prenomen engraved on their sides, and under the XVIIIth dynasty it was customary to

make bowls, vases and libation pots of tcham, A

ог

a kind of whitish gold, which probably contained silver. Large numbers of vases were made of bronze; libation buckets were also made of bronze. These are ornamented with figures in relief representing the deceased adoring the gods, or with designs cut in outline representing the adoration of the dead and the worship of Osiris. The ladles belonging to these have handles with ends in the shape of the heads of geese, and, in some respects, resemble old English toddy ladles. These buckets and ladles belong to the XXVIth dynasty and Ptolemaïc Period (B.M. 36319). Many of the stone vases found in tombs are only models, and were never intended to contain offerings, and many models were made of wood. These were painted to resemble variegated glass, and sometimes they were covered all over with plaster gilded (B.M. 30454, 30455, 35276, 32598 and 9528), with an inscription beginning Gilded

models are represented by B.M. 35273, 35274, which were made for Rameses II and are inscribed with the names of two kinds of eye

1 Compare Hebrew hîn, . The Hebrew hin = Egyptian hen = 0.456 litre.

6.06 litres, the