&c. or 5465. Arm. Dom.

54. &c.

Nor was his cruelty less exorbitant than his lust: For, upon the discovery of a con- A. M. 4058. spiracy, which Caius Piso and some other great men had formed against him, he put vast numbers to death, noble and ignoble, guilty and innocent, among whom (besides Piso, the head of the conspiracy) died Lucan, the famous poet, who hated Nero for his forbidding him to publish his verses; Seneca *, the philosopher, and tutor to the tyrant, who, though not convicted of any treason, was commanded to die; and the polite but impure Petronius, who had been a great assistant to Nero in his extravagant pleasures. Nay, so sanguinary was he in his temper, that, without any manner of provocation, he put many eminent persons to death, as Rubellius Plautus, only for being of the Julian family, and another, named Pallas, merely for being rich; a crime for which many suffered in those days! And, to complete all his wickedness, having set the city of Rome on fire, which with infinite satisfaction he beheld, and sung all the while "the destruction of Troy" in derision, he nevertheless, out of hatred to the Christians, accused them of the fact, and thereupon proceeded against them as incendiaries, raised the first general persecution, and put great numbers of them to the most exquisitely cruel and ignominious deaths.

These, and many more bloody and tyrannical proceedings, had by this time worn out the patience of the Romans, and made all men press for a revolution. Vindex, commander of the legions in Gaul, was the first who began the revolt. He publicly protested against the government of Nero, and proclaimed Sergius Galba, who at that time was governor of part of Spain, emperor. *2 Galba, joining in the enterprise, and taking the empire upon him, procured the revolt, not only of the armies in Spain, but of the legions in Germany, and several other places, who unanimously declared against the present emperor.

These proceedings drove Nero to the utmost rage and despair, and put him upon a design, the blackest and most barbarous that ever man imagined. He resolved to massacre all the governors of provinces, and commanders of armies, under the pretence of conspiracies; to destroy all exiled persons, lest they should join with the revolters; to murder all the Gauls in Rome, as favourers of their countrymen; to poison the whole senate at an entertainment; to burn the city again, and to turn out wild beasts among the people, to prevent their extinguishing the flames: But he found himself unable to effect these designs. All mankind fell from him, and forsook him; which made him become as servile as before he was tyrannical. Nay, the senate having met together, pronounced him a mortal enemy to the state, and solemnly condemned him to die more majorum, which was to have his body stripped naked, his head made fast in a pillory,

* He being commanded to die, cheerfully undertook it; but was obliged to seek death several ways; for he had so macerated himself with abstinence, that he could not bleed, and poison would have no operation upon him: But at length, entering a bath, he was stifled with the fumes, discoursing even to the last, according to his usual eloquence, of the most excellent things, which being taken from his mouth, were afterwards published. Such was the death of the great philosopher Seneca, which some have thought a just judgment upon him, for living so contrary to his writings, and for educating his pupil no better. Echard's Roman History in the Life of Nero, + His death was the most remarkable in the world, and most resembling the whole course of his life. In at he proceeded with all imaginable unconcern, opening his veins, and closing them as he thought fit, disCoursing with his friends, not of serious matters or the mortality of the soul, but of sight and pleasant things, and all the time attending to soft verses and

delicate love songs. Echard, ibid.

** There is something so lively in some part of the speech which Galba made to his army upon this occasion, that it is well worthy our observation.—“ It grieves me to say, but it hinders not every man from seeing, that no slave, under the severest master, ever endured a year of harder service than we have so many under Nero. What kind of exaction has he not used to supply with extortion what he hath spent with shame? What kind of cruelty has he not practised? How has he wallowed in the blood of his father, his brother, his mother, his wife, his master, and all who are valiant and virtuous in the senate, city, or provinces, without any distinction of age or sex? All which cry for vengeance upon such a prince: A prince! No, an incendiary, a singer, a fiddler, a player, a carter, a cryer: No prince, nay, no man, having a man to his husband, and a dan to his wife; but a monster of mankind !" Echard, ibid.

A. M. 4072, and so to be scourged to death. When Nero understood this, he snatched up two dag&c. or 5479. gers, and, after many inglorious sighs and tears, and some whining complaints, "what a rare artist the world in him would lose," by the assistance of Epaphroditus, his secretary, he wounded himself so, that he died shortly after, in the thirty-second year of his age, and fourteenth of his reign.

68, &c.

The death of Nero occasioned an universal joy and satisfaction in Rome; and, as Galba was esteemed a person of great wisdom and valour, and had been elected by the two armies in Gaul and Spain, the people unanimously agreed, and the senate, in a short time, consented to create him emperor, though he had no affinity or alliance with the family of the Cæsars, either by blood or adoption.

Galba was seventy-two years old when he first undertook the government, under the name of the Lieutenant of the Senate and People of Rome; but, when he received advice that Nero was dead, and the people had sworn allegiance to him, he laid aside the name of lieutenant, and, assuming the title of Cæsar, put himself upon his way to Rome. In the mean time several rumours were spread abroad both of his avarice and cruelty; of his severe treating the cities of Spain and Gaul, which scrupled at first to declare for him; of his oppressing them with excessive tributes, demolishing their fortifications, executing their governors, and even not sparing their wives and children, which made the people begin to shew less satisfaction for his arrival than they did for his election.

At his first coming to Rome, his severity to those seamen and mariners whom Nero had listed among his legionary soldiers; his discharging the Roman cohorts which had been established by former emperors; his refusing to pay the donative that in his absence was promised to the Prætorian bands; and, shortly after, cashiering several of them upon a bare suspicion of correspondence and confederacy with Nymphidius, captain of the guards; these, and several other arbitrary proceedings, procured him many enemies, especially among the military people: Though his rescinding the odious acts of Nero, recalling those whom he had unjustly banished, and executing several of the wicked instruments of his cruelty, were very grateful actions to the Romans in general, had he not spared some of the most notorious offenders for the sake of money.

The love of money indeed was his governing passion, and had got so absolute a possession of him, that he was often observed to sigh and weep when he saw his table a little better furnished than ordinary: But that which made this emperor most generally detested, was his suffering himself to be entirely managed by three favourites, who, having their lodgings with him in the palace, and being perpetually in his presence, were commonly styled his three pedagogues. They were persons of as different humours and vices as possible; and accordingly, by the abuse of his authority, made him appear, in the inequality of his conduct, both odious and despicable; so that sometimes he shewed himself severe and rigorous, at other times remiss and negligent, condemning some illustrious persons unheard, pardoning others without reason, and permitting every thing either to be purchased by money, or granted for favour, just as he was guided by these

men.

During this misconduct at Rome, affairs in the provinces were in a worse condition. For since the army in Spain had presumed to choose an emperor without any other authority, many mutinies were raised, and factions sprang up in most parts of the empire, through envy, discontent, or a desire of alteration; so that the emperor, perceiving that, besides his unwieldy old age, which made him contemptible, he was less respected by many for want of an heir, was resolved to adopt some person of such an age and authority, as, in his lifetime, might be able to protect him, and after his decease succeed him in the empire. Upon his declaring this his intent, his three favourites were very busy in recommending persons to him; but Otho having gained the chief favourite Vanius, together with the Urban and Prætorian cohorts, assured himself of success.

Ann. Dom.

Galba, however, resolving to consider the public good, and disliking Otho's irregular A. M. 4072, life, as too much resembling that of his master Nero, rejected him, and made choice of &c. or 5479. a young man called Piso, in whom was an happy concurrence of all the good qualities that were necessary in a prince and emperor.

Otho finding the hopes of his adoption thus blasted, immediately applied himself to the soldiers, with whom he had a powerful interest, and by his plausible speeches and large promises, engaged them to proclaim him emperor, in opposition to Galba's choice; which when Galba understood, he was both disheartened and confounded. Some were of opinion that he ought to put himself in arms and appear in public, that his presence might stem the torrent of this dangerous faction; others, that his greatest security would be to fortify himself in the capitol, and there to attend the result of the disorder. But while he continued thus wavering and irresolute, a false report was brought him that Otho was slain; whereupon he rode armed out of his palace, with his guards and many followers into the grand Forum; and at the same time there entered, at the other side, a strong body of horse from the camp, sent by Otho to dispatch him. Upon their nearer approach, for a considerable while they stood amazed and in a dubious posture, as apprehending the consequence of their fatal commission; so that Galba had time enough to make his escape, but by his irresolution lost his opportunity. For while he was considering with himself whether to return to the palace or retire to the capitol, he was suddenly abandoned by the chief of his followers, insomuch, that when the soldiers sent by Otho came up to him, he stretched out his neck and bad them strike it off, if it were for the good of the commonwealth and the Roman people; which accordingly was done in the seventy-third year of his age, after a short reign of seven months; and after him were executed his three favourites, and his adopted son Piso.

On the same day that Galba was murdered in the Forum, the senate and the people of Rome all acknowledged Otho for his successor; a person valiant and witty, of an ancient and honourable family, and a great favourite to Nero: but more for the conformity of his humours and vices, and the beauty of his wife Poppaa, than any worthy execution of the many considerable offices wherewith he was intrusted. However, when he came to the government, he ordered all things agreeably to the honour of the empire, which, together with his pardoning Marius Celsus, who had been advanced by Galba, and strenuously opposed his succession; his punishing of Tigellinus, who had been Nero's chief instrument in impurity; and his generous restoring the goods and estates of such as had been exiled by that tyrant, gained him the love and affection of the people of Rome.

Vitellius, at this time, commanded the legions in the Lower Germany. He was a person of great reputation and authority, by reason of the several offices and magistracies which he had held in Rome and elsewhere, under the three emperors Caligula, Claudius, and Nero, with each of whom he had been very intimate, but more for his excessive vices and some personal abilities, than any virtues or excellencies in him. He was in favour with Claudius, for his gaming at dice; with Caligula, for his dexteri ty in managing a chariot; and with Nero, for the same skill, and some other such like qualities; but notwithstanding this, being a man of subtlety and intrigue, he had, by large gifts and specious promises, procured the army to create him emperor, without attending the will and pleasure of the senate, about 13 days before Galba's death.

When the news of this came to Rome, it put Otho into a great consternation, and the city into no small concern, as well knowing that nothing but the sword and the blood of many thousand Romans could determine the contest. The fears and cares of the city were farther augmented by the great preparations they saw Otho making, and the known disabilities of the nobility and gentry in martial affairs. The chief of the senate were grown old and impotent, wanting both the power and vigour of soldiers. The nobility were slothful, covered with the rust of a long peace, and unaccustomed

68, &c.

Ann. Dom. 69, &c.

A. M. 4073, to the fatigues of a camp. The Equites were dissolved in ease and luxury, and igno&c. or 5480. rant in military service, which the more they endeavoured to conceal, the more they betrayed their fears. The wiser sort began to shew great concern at the miseries and perturbations of the commonwealth; but the inconsiderate were swelled with vain hopes and extravagant opinions, and many persons, bankrupts in peace, in these troublesome times, began to make the greatest appearance, as being themselves most in safety when the state was in greatest danger.

While things were in this situation at Rome, Otho received advice that Vitellius's forces were upon their march towards Italy, under the conduct of two commanders, Valens and Cæcinna; whereupon he departed from Rome with a fair army, consisting of the Roman nobility, the prætorian cohorts, the legions out of the fleets upon the Italian coasts, and such others as he could levy in that time. Upon the approach of the two armies, both parties proceeded with such haste and precipitation, that, besides skirmishes and other encounters, three considerable battles were fought, one at Placentia, another at Cremona, and a third at a place called Castor, in all which Otho and the senate had the advantage, though the word on both sides was, "Rome and the empire!"

Valens and Cæcinna bad hitherto acted separately, but joining now all their forces together, they came to a general battle near Bebriacum, a village between Cremona and Verona, and, after a sharp engagement, the prætorian cohorts giving way, the Vitellians obtained a victory, which at once decided the contest. For Otho, though he had sufficient encouragement to continue the war, being reduced to a sort of desperation, resolved upon an attempt, contrary to his soft and effeminate temper, which was" to die himself, in order to spare the blood of his countrymen." No arguments or entreaties could move or divert him from this resolution, which he carried on and effected with all imaginable calmness and serenity of mind.

For the night before he died, having chosen out a sharp dagger, and laid it under his pillow, he took a draught of cold water, and so went to bed and fell into a profound sleep; but awaking about break of day, and seeing one of his servants in the chamber, he commanded him to retire, and then taking the dagger, gave himself a mortal stab on the left side, and, with a single groan, ended his life, in the thirty-eighth year of his age, and after a very short and troublesome reign of only twelve weeks and six days.

Soon after the death of Otho, Vitellius, being still in Gaul, was both by the army and senate acknowledged for emperor. In his journey towards Rome, arriving at Be. briacum, where the last battle was fought, he was extremely delighted with the sight of the putrified bodies, and the limbs of men and horses mangled and scattered abroad; and when several of his train complained of the noisome smells, he impiously replied, That "a dead enemy smelled well, but a dead citizen better." Nor did he give

His speech to his soldiers, upon this occasion, is very remarkable," I esteem this day as far more happy and glorious than that whereon you made me emperor, since it has manifested such sensible tokens of your love and affection, and so incontestable proofs of your duty and loyalty; therefore I beseech you not to deny me this favour, which is to suffer me to die justly and honourably for the safety of so many brave soldiers, and worthy citizens as you are. There can be no occasion for any legions and forces coming to my assistance, since the enemy is neither Hannibal nor Pyrrhus; therefore to hazard your virtue and valour in dangers wholly needless, is too dear a purchase of life, and the greater hopes you have of success, the more honourable will be my death,

as being voluntary, and not by any constraint. Assure yourselves I had rather die than reign emperor, since I can never so far advance the Roman state by wars and bloodshed, as by sacrificing myself for the peace of it; and whereas others have purchased fame and glory by their well-governing and supporting the empire, I may reasonably expect a name for leaving it, rather than permit my ambition to weaken and destroy it. I therefore desire that you would take this as an undoubted proof of my courage and resolution, that I make no complaints of hard fortune, or ill success; for to blame either gods or men, implies a mean and indirect desire of living." Echard's Roman History, in the life of Otho.

&c. or 5480. Ann. Dom. 69, &c.

greater satisfaction at his arrival in Rome; for, like a conqueror. he entered the city A. M. 4073, mounted upon a noble steed, and adorned with all his military habiliments; encouraged his soldiers to all kinds of insolence and outrage; and abandoned himself to the most extravagant degrees of luxury, gluttony, and cruelty, insomuch that, in four months time, he wasted above seven millions of our money; nor would the revenues of the whole empire, had he reigned long, have been sufficient to maintain his expences. His using all manner of fraud and hypocrisy to destroy such persons of quality as had formerly been his associates and school fellows; his going to visit one of them in a fever, and upon his desiring to drink, mingling poison with the water, and delivering it to him with his own hand; his causing all persons to be put to death that came to demand the payment of his former debts, and one of them to be slain in his very presence, that he might feed his eyes with the spectacle," as he called it; his ordering two sons to be executed with their father, for no other crime than merely presuming to intercede for his life; and his having several of the meaner sort slaughtered, only for deriding the colours of some charioteers whom he pretended to favour; these, and many more sanguinary acts, mentioned by the historians who have recorded his life, are a sufficient indication, that in his government he designed to follow the example of Nero, to whose manes he publicly sacrificed in a general assembly of the priests in the Campus Martius All this while he gave himself up to such a strange carelessness and stupidity, that nothing but his horrid cruelties could put him in mind of his exalted state; and fortifying himself with confused mirth and sottishness against all dangers and exigences, he almost lost the remembrance of things past, and the thoughts of things to come.

"

Having thus, by this abominable life, made himself odious to the city, and by the daily insolences and cruelties of his soldiers insupportable to the country, the legions in the east (though in the beginning of his reign they submitted to his authority) began now to revolt, and fixing their eyes upon Vespasian, as a person most worthy of the highest authority, and most able to put an end to the miseries of his country, resolved to create him emperor against Vitellius. Vespasian at this time was engaged in a war against the Jews, and with great bravery and renown had reduced most of their country, except Jerusalem; but when his army proclaimed him emperor, and he absolutely refused that dignity, the soldiers with their drawn swords, and many menaces against his life, compelled him to take the honour upon him; whereupon all the armies of the east came to his service and obedience, and in a general council it was determined that Titus should continue the war against the Jews, Mutianus enter Italy with the greatest part of the legions, and Vespasian himself go to Alexandria, to make provision from all parts, and thence pass over into Italy, to join Mutianus, as occasion should require it.

In the mean time, Antonius Primus, an excellent soldier, who had been banished by Nero, but restored by Galba, a friend to Vespasian, and privy to his design, immediately marched at the head of the Mæsian legions into Italy; and before Mutianus could arrive, having entirely defeated Vitellius's army, as proceeding directly towards Rome. This so startled and confounded Vitellius, that he became perfectly ridiculous and dispicable, sometimes proposing terms of accommodation, and offering to lay down his authority, and then reassuming it again, till he occasioned a faction and civil war even in Rome, in which the capitol was besieged, taken, and laid in ashes, and Sabinus the governor of the city was slain. After this, Antonius would hearken to no more treaties or accommodations, but continued his march even to the walls of Rome, where a furious battle of almost a day's continuance ensued, until Vitellius's army was driven into the city, and, through the Martius Campus, and all the streets, pursued with a most terrible slaughter.

In the midst of these devastations, the people, who were then celebrating their Saturnalia, rather than not enjoy the pleasures of the festival, converted the common cala