both. The mould being finished, and inclosed as described, whether under ground or above it, a moderate fire is lighted in the furnace under it, and the whole covered with planks, that the wax may melt gently down, and run out at pipes contrived for that purpose, at the foot of the mould, which are afterwards exactly closed with earth, so soon as the wax is carried off. This done, the hole is filled up with bricks thrown in at random, and the fire in the furnace augmented, till such time as both the bricks and mould become red hot. After this, the fire being extinguished, and every thing cold again, they take out the bricks, and fill up their place with earth, moistened and a little beaten, to the top of the mould, in order to make it the more firm and steady. These preparatory measures being duly taken, there remains nothing but to melt the metal, and run it into the mould. This is the office of the furnace above described, which is commonly made in the form of an oven, with three apertures, one to put in the wood, another for a vent, and a third to run the metal out at. From this last aperture, which is kept very close while the metal is in fusion, a small tube is laid, whereby the melted metal is conveyed into a large earthen basin over the mould, into the bottom of which all the big branches of the jets or casts, which are to convey the metal into all the parts of the mould, are inserted.. These casts, or jets, are all terminated with a kind of plugs, which are kept close, that, upon opening the furnace, the brass, which gushes out with violence, may not enter any of them, till the basin be full enough of matter to run into them all at once. Upon which occasion, they pull out the plugs, which are long iron rods, with a head at one end, capable of filling the whole diameter of each tube. The whole of the furnace is opened with a long piece of iron, fitted at the end of each pole, and the mould filled in an instant. This completes the work in relation to the casting part; the rest being the sculptor's or carver's business, who, taking the figure out of the mould and earth wherewith it is encompassed, saws off the jets with which it appears covered over, and repairs it with chisels, gravers, puncheons, &c. FOUNDERY of bells. The metal for bells See BELL. has already been described. The dimensions of the core, and the wax, for bells, if a ring of bells especially, are not left to chance, but must be measured on a scale, or diapason, which gives the height, aperture, and thickness ne- The business of bell-foundery is re- The proportions of our bells differ much from those of the Chinese: in ours the modern proportions are, to make the diameter fifteen times the thickness of the brim, and twelve times the height. There are two kinds of preparation, viz. the simple and the relative: the former are those proportions only that are between the several parts of a bell, to render it sonorous; the relative proportions establish a requisite harmony be tween several bells. The particulars necessary for making the mould of a bell, are, 1. The earth; the most cohesive is the best: it must be well ground and sifted, to prevent any chinks. 2. Brick-stone; which must be used for the mine, mould, or core, and for the furnace. 3. Horse-dung, hair, and hemp, mixed with the earth, to render the cement more binding. 4. The wax for incriptions, coats of arms, &c. 5. The tallow, equally mixed with the wax, in order to put a slight lay of it upon the outer mould, before any letters are applied to it. 6. The coals to dry the mould. For making the mould, they have a scaffold, consisting of four boards, ranged upon tressels. Upon this they carry the earth, grossly diluted, to mix it with horse dung, beating the whole with a large spatula. The compasses of construction is the chief instrument for making the mould, which consists of two different legs, joined by a third piece. And last of all, the founder's shelves, on which are the engravings of the letters, cartridges, coats of arms, &c. They first dig a hole of a sufficient depth to contain the mould of the bell, together with the case, or cannon, under ground; and about six inches lower than the terre-pleine, where the work is performed. The hole must be wide enough for a free passage between the mould and walls of the hole; or between one mould and another, when several bells are to be cast. At the centre of the hole is a stake erected, that is strongly fastened in the ground. This supports an iron peg, on which the pivot of the second branch of the compasses turns. The stake is encompassed with a solid brick-work, perfectly round, about half a foot high, and of the proposed bell's diameter. This they call a mill-stone. The parts of the mould are the core, the model of the bell, and the shell. When the outer surface of the core is formed, they begin to raise the core, which is made of bricks that are laid in courses of equal height upon a lay of plain earth. At the laying each brick they bring near it the branch of the compasses, on which the curve of the core is shaped, so as that there may remain between it and the curve the distance of a line, to be afterwards filled up with layers of cement. The work is continued to the top, only leaving an opening for the coals o bake the core. This work is covered with a layer of cement, made of earth and horse-dung, on which they move the compasses of construction, to make it of an even smoothness every where. The first layer being finished, they put the fire to the core, by filling it half with coals, through an opening that is kept shut during the baking, with a cake of earth, that has been separately baked. The first fire consumes he stake, and the fire is left in the core half, or sometimes a whole day: the first layer being thoroughly dry, they cover it with a second, third, and fourth; each being smoothed by the board of the compasses, and tho. roughly dried before they proceed to another. The core being completed, they take the compasses to pieces, with intent to cut off the thickness of the model, and the compasses are immediately put in their place, to begin a second piece of the mould. It consists of a mixture of earth and hair, applied with the hand on the core, in several cakes that close toge ther. This work is finished by several layers of a thinner cement of the same matter, smoothed by the compasses, and thoroughly dried, before another is laid on. The first layer of the model is a mixture of wax and grease spread over the whole. After which are applied the inscriptions, coats of arms, &c. besmeared with a pencil dipped in a vessel of wax in a chafing dish: this is done for every letter. Before the shell is begun, the compasses are taken to pieces, to cut off all the wood that fills the place of the thick ness to be given to the sheil. The first layer is the same earth with the rest, sifted very fine; whilst it is tempering in water, it is mixed with cow's hair, to make it cohere. The whole, be. ing a thin cullis, is gently poured on the model, that fills exactly all the sinuosities of the figures, &c. and this is repeated till the whole is two lines thick over the model. When this layer is thoroughly dried, they cover it with a second of the same matter, but something thicker: when this second layer becomes of some consistence, they apply the compasses again, and light a fire in the core, so as to melt off the wax of the inscriptions, &c. After this, they go on with other layers of the shell, by means of the compasses. Here they add to the cow's hair a quanti ty of hemp, spread upon the layers, and afterwards smoothed by the board of the compasses The thickness of the shell comes to four or five inches lower than the mill-stone before observed, and surrounds it quite close, which prevents the extravasation of the metal. The wax should be taken out before the melting of the metal. The ear of the bell requires a separate work, which is done during the drying of the several incrustations of the cement. It has seven rings; the seventh is called the bridge, and unites the others, being a perpendicular support to strengthen the curves. It has an aperture at the top, to admit a large iron peg, bent at the bottom; and this is introduced into two holes in the beam, fastened with two strong iron keys There are models made of the rings, with masses of beaten earth, that are dried in the fire, in order to have the hollow of them. These rings are gently pressed upon a layer of earth and cow's hair, one half of its depth; and then taken out, without breaking the mould This operation is repeated twelve times for twelve half-moulds, that two and two united may make the hollows of the six rings: the same they do for the hollow of the bridge, and bake them all, to unite them together. Upon the open place left for the coals to be put in are placed the rings that constitute the ear. They first put into this open place the iron ring to support the clapper of the bell; then they make a round cake of clay, to fill up the diameter of the thickness of the core. This cake, after baking, is clapped upon the opening, and soldered with a thin mortar spread over it, which binds the cover close to the core. The bollow of the model is filled with an earth sufficiently moist to fix on the place, which is strewed at several times upon the cover of the core; and they beat it gently with a pestle to a proper height; and a workman smooths the earth at top with a wooden trowel dipped in water. Upon this cover, to be taken off after wards, they assemble the hollows of the rings. When every thing is in its proper place, they strengthen the outsides of the hollows with mortar, in order to bind them with the bridge, and keep them steady at the bottom, by means of a cake of the same mortar, which fills up the whole aperture of the shell. This they let dry, that it may be removed with out breaking. To make room for the metal, they pull off the hollows of the rings through which the metal is to pass, before it enters into the vacuity of the mould. The shell being unloaded of its ear, they range under the mill-stone five or six pieces of wood, about two feet long, and thick enough to reach almost the lower part of the shell; between these and the mould they drive in wooden wedges with a mallet, to shake the shell of the model whereon it rests, so as to be pulled up, and got out of the pit. When this and the wax are removed, they break the model and the layer of earth, through which the metal must run, from the hollow of the rings, between the bell and the core. They smoke the inside of the shell, by burning straw under it, that helps to smooth the surface of the bell. Then they put the shell in the place, so as to leave the same interval between that and the core; and before the hollows of the rings or the cap are put on again, they add two vents, that are united to the rings, and to each other, by a mass of baked cement. After which they put on this mass of the cap, the rings, and the vent, over the shell, and solder it with thin cement, which is dried gradually, by covering it with burning coals. Then they fill up the pit with earth, beating it strongly all the time round the mould. The furnace has a place for the fire, and another for the metal. The fire. place has a large chimney, with a spa cious ash-hole. The furnace, which contains the metal, is vaulted, whose bottom is made of earth, rammed down; the rest is built with brick. It has four apertures; the first, through which the Bame reverberates; the second is closed with a stopple, that is opened for the metal to run; the others are to separate the dross, or scorie, of the metal by wooden rakes: through these last apertures passVOL. V. es the thick smoke. The ground of the furnace is built sloping, for the metal to run down. FOUNDERY, of great guns and mortar. pieces. The method of casting these pieces is little different from that of bells; they are run massy, without any core, being determined by the hollow of the shell; and they are afterwards bored with a steel trepan, that is worked either by horses or a water-mill or steam. FOUNDERY, Letter, or casting of printing types. The first thing requisite is to prepare good steel punches, on the face of which is drawn the exact shape of the letter with pen and ink, if the letter be large; or with a smooth blunted point of a needle, if small; and then, with proper gravers, the cutter digs deep between the strokes, letting the marks stand on the punch; the work of hollowing being generally regulated by the depth of the counter punch: then he files the outside, till it is fit for the matrice. They have a mould to justify the matrices by, which consists of an upper and under part; both these are alike, except the stool and spring behind, and a small roundish wire in the upper part, for making the nick in the shank of the letter. These two parts are exactly fitted into each other, being a male and fe. male gage, to slide backwards and forwards. Then they justify the mould, by casting about twenty samples of letters, which are set in a composing stick, with the nicks towards the right hand; and comparing these every way with the pattern letters, set up in the same manner, they find the exact measure of the body to be cast. Next they prepare the matrice, which is of brass or copper, an inch and a half long, and of a proportionable thickness to the size of the letter it is to contain. In this metal is sunk the face of the letter, by striking the letter-punch the depth of an n. After this, the sides and face of the matrice are justified, and cleared, with files, of all bunchings that have been made by sinking the punch. Then it is brought to the furnace, which is built upright of brick, with four square sides and a stone at top, in which is a hole for the pan to stand in. They have several of these furnaces. Printing-letters are made of lead, hardened with iron or stub-nails. To make the iron run, they mingle an equal weight of antimony, beaten small in an iron mor E e tär, and stub-nails together. They charge a proper number of earthen pots that bear the fire with the two ingredients, as full as they can hold, and melt it in an open furnace built for that purpose. When it bubbles, the iron is then melted, but it evaporates very much. This melted compost is ladled into an iron pot, wherein is melted lead, that is fixed on a furnace close to the former, 3lb. of melted iron to 25lb. of lead; this they incorporate according to art. The caster, taking the pan off the stone, and having kindled a good fire, he sets the pan in again, and metal in it to melt. If it be a small-bodied letter, or a thin letter with great bodies, that he intends to cast, his metal must be very hot, and sometimes red-hot, to make the let ter come. Then taking a ladle, of which he has several sorts, that will hold as much as will make the letter and break, he lays it at the hole where the flame bursts out; then he ties a thin leather, cut with its narrow end against the face, to the leather groove of the matrice, by whipping a brown thread twice about the leather groove, and fastening the thread with a knot. Then he puts both pieces of the mould together, and the matrice into the matrice-cheek, and places the foot of the matrice on the stool of the mould, and the broad end of the leather on the wood of the upper haft of the mould, but not tight up, lest it hinder the foot of the matrice from sinking close down upon the stool, in a train of work. Afterwards, laying a little resin on the upper part of the mould, and having his casting-ladle hot, he, with the boiling side, melts the resin, and presses the broad end of the leather hard down on the wood, and so fastens it thereto. Now he comes to casting, when placing the under half of the mould in his left hand, with the hook or jag forward, he holds the end of its wood between the lower part of the ball of his thumb and his three hinder fingers; then he lays the upper half of the mould upon the under half, so as the male gages may fall into the female; and, at the same time, the foot of the matrice places itself upon the stool, and clasping his left hand thumb strongly over the upper half, he nimbly catches hold of the bow or spring, with his right hand fingers at the top of it, and his thumb under it, and places the point of it against the middle of the notch in the backside of the matrice, pressing it forwards, as well towards the mould as downwards, by the shoulder of the notch, close upon the stool, while at the same time, with his hinder fingers, as aforesaid, he draws the under half of the mould towards the ball of his thumb, and thrusts, by the ball of his thumb, the upper part towards his fingers, that both the registers of the mould may press against both sides of the matrice, and his thumb and fingers press both sides of the mould close together. Then he takes the handle of his ladle in his right hand, and with the ball of it gives two or three strokes outwards upon the surface of the melted metal, to clear it of the scum; then he takes up the ladle full, and having the mould in the left hand, turns his left side a little from the furnace, and brings the geat of his ladle to the mouth of the mould; and turns the upper part of his right hand towards him, to pour the metal into it, while, at the same instant, he puts the mould in his left hand forwards, to receive the metal with a strong shake, not only into the bodies of the mould, but, while the metal is yet hot, into the very face of the matrice, to receive its perfeet form there as well as in the shank. Then he takes the upper half of the mould off, by placing his right thumb on the end of the wood next his left thumb, and his two middle fingers at the other end of the wood: he tosses the letter, break and all, out upon a sheet of waste paper, laid on a bench a little beyond his left hand; and then is ready to cast another letter as before, and likewise the whole number in that matrice. Then boys, commonly employed for this purpose, separate the breaks from the shanks, and rub them on a stone, and afterwards a man cuts them all of an even height, which finishes the fount for the use of the printer. See the next article. A workman will ordinarily cast 3000 of these letters in a day. The perfection of letters thus cast consists in their being all severally square and straight on every side; and all generally of the same height, and evenly lined, without stooping one way or other; neither too big in the foot nor the head; well grooved, so as the two extremes of the foot contain half the body of the letter; and well ground, barbed, and scraped with a sensihle notch, &c. See PRINTING, FOUNT, or FONT, among printers, a set or quantity of letters, and all the ap pendages belonging thereto, as numeral characters, quadrats, points, &c. cast by a letter-founder, and sorted. Founts are large or small, according to the demand of the printer, who orders them by the hundred weight, or by sheets. When a printer orders a fount of five hundred, he means that the fount, consisting of letters, points, spaces, quadrats, &c., shall weigh 50016. When he demands a fount of ten sheets, it is understood, that with that fount he shall be able to compose ten sheets, or twenty forms, without being obliged to distribute. The founder takes his measures accordingly; he reckons 120lb. for a sheet, including the quadrats, &c. or 6016. for a form, which is only half a sheet: not that the sheet always weighs 1206., or the form 6016.; on the contrary, it varies according to the size of the form: besides, it is always supposed that there are letters left in the cases. As, therefore, every sheet does not comprehend the same number of letters, nor the same sort of letters, we must observe, that, as in every language some sounds recur more frequently than others, some letters will be in much more use, and oftener repeated than others, and consequently their cells or cases should be better stored than those of the letters which do not recur so frequently: thus, a fount does not contain an equal number of a and b, or of 6 and c, &c. the letter-founders have therefore a list or tariff, or, as the French call it, a police, by which they regulate the proportions between the different sorts of characters that compose a fount: and it is evident that this tariff will vary in different languages, but will remain the same for all sorts of characters employed in the same language. Suppose a fount of 100,000 characters, which is a common fount; here a should have 5000; c, 3000; e, 11, 000; i, 6000; m, 3000; the k, only 300; and the x, y, and z, not many more. FOUNTAIN, in philosophy, a spring or source of water, rising out of the earth. Among the ancients, fountains were held sacred, and even worshipped as a kind of divinities. For the phænomena, theory, and origin of fountains or springs, see SPRING. FOUNTAIN, or Artificial Fountain, in hydraulics, called also a jet d'eau, is a contrivance, by which water is violently spouted upwards. See HYDRAULICS. FOUNTAIN pen. See PEN. FOURTH, in music, one of the harmonical intervals, called concords. It is called fourth, as containing four sounds or terms between its extremes, and three intervals; or, as being the fourth in or der of the natural or diatonic scale from FOW the fundamental. The ancients called it diatessaron, and speak of it as the principal concord, on whose divisions all the rest depend; but the moderns, so far from allowing it such perfections, find it one of the most imperfect, and even dispute whether it ought, to be received among the number of concords at all. It consists in the mixture of two sounds in the ratio of 4:3; that is, of two sounds produced by two chords, whose lengths, &c. are in that proportion. birds. It is either practised as an amuseFOWLING, the art of taking or killing ment by persons of rank and property, and then principally consists in killing them with a light fire-arm, called a fowling-piece, and the diversion is secured to them by the game-laws; or it is practised for a livelihood, by persons who use nets and other apparatus. Though there is fowling with the fowling-piece, not only much skill and knowledge displayed in in the use of the instrument, but likewise in the training of dogs, and discovering and starting the game, we must, tering into this subject. The other artifrom the nature of our limits, avoid enfices, by which birds are taken, consist in imitating their voices, or leading them, by other means, into situations, where they become entrapped by nets, or birdlime, or otherwise. common means used to take great numThe pipe, or call, affords the most bers of birds; this is done in the months of September and October. A thin wood is the spot chosen for this purpose; under a tree, a little distant from the others, is erected a cabin, and there are only those branches left on the tree, which are necessary for the placing of the bird-lime, which are supple twigs, and are covered with bird-lime. There are placed around the cabin avenues with twisted perches, which are also besmeared with bird-lime. The birdcatcher places himself in the cabin, and at sun-rise and sun-set imitates the cry of a small bird, calling the others to its cries to express their different passions, assistance; for animals have also their which are well known to each other. If a cry is made to imitate the owl, immediately different sorts of birds assemble they are seen falling to the ground at at the cry of their common enemy, and every instant, their wings, from the birdlime, being of no use to them. The cries of those birds which are thus caught attract others, and great quantities are in this manner taken. It is only |