Persia in which captives are represented as dragged before the conquering king by a rope, which passes round all

ROPES ON NECKS.

their necks and strings them to one another. The messengers of Ben-hadad voluntarily appear before the king of Israel in the same fashion as that in which it was usual to present captives to their conqueror, to receive from him the award of life or death.

34. Streets....in Damascus.'-In the East, persons of different religions and nations do not live indiscriminately where they please; but each denomination occupies its own particular quarter of the town-its street or streets. At this day the Jews have their distinct streets in Damascus, and in every other considerable town of Western Asia. It is not at all likely that this was allowed when Syria and Israel were neighbouring nations, in every respect adverse to each other; and therefore the concession in the present instance, without any equivalent on the part of Israel, is offered and received as a privilege extorted by circumstances. It no doubt included the concession that the Jews, in the quarter assigned them in Damascus, should have the free exercise of their religion and be subject to their own magistrates. Similar circumstances. occur in modern Oriental history. Thus when the Turkish sultan Bajazet was alarmed at the impending war with Timur Beg, he agreed with the Greek emperor Manuel, to raise the siege of Constantinople, upon condition,' says Knolles, that the emperor should grant free liberty for the Turks to dwell together in one street of Constantinople, with free exercise of their own religion and laws under a judge of their own nation; and further, to pay unto the Turkish king a yearly tribute of ten thousand ducats; which dishonourable conditions the distressed emperor wäs glad to accept of. Accordingly a number of Turks came and settled with their families in the city, and built a mosque in the quarter allotted to them. But no sooner did the emperor hear that the sultan had been defeated by Timur Beg, than he turned all the Turks out of the town, and razed their mosque to the ground. [vv. 35-43, APPENDIX, No. 41.]

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CHAPTER XXI.

1 Ahab being denied Naboth's vineyard is grieved. 5 Jezebel writing letters against Naboth, he is condemned of blasphemy. 15 Ahab taketh possession of the vineyard. 17 Elijah denounceth judgments against Ahab and Jezebel. 25 Wicked Ahab repenting, God deferreth the judgment.

AND it came to pass after these things, that Naboth the Jezreelite had a vineyard, which was in Jezreel, hard by the palace of Ahab king of Samaria.

2 And Ahab spake unto Naboth, saying, Give me thy vineyard, that I may have it for a garden of herbs, because it is near unto my house and I will give thee for it a better vineyard than it; or, if it 'seem good to thee, I will give thee the worth of it in money.

3 And Naboth said to Ahab, The LORD forbid it me, that I should give the inheritance of my fathers unto thee.

4 And Ahab came into his house heavy and displeased because of the word which Naboth the Jezreelite had spoken to him: for he had said, I will not give thee the inheritance of my fathers. And he laid him down upon his bed, and turned away his face, and would eat no bread.

5 ¶ But Jezebel his wife came to him, and said unto him, Why is thy spirit so sad, that thou eatest no bread?

1 Heb. be good in thine eyes.

6 And he said unto her, Because I spake unto Naboth the Jezreelite, and said unto him, Give me thy vineyard for money; or else, if it please thee, I will give thee another vineyard for it: and he answered, I will not give thee my vineyard.

7 And Jezebel his wife said unto him, Dost thou now govern the kingdom of Israel? arise, and eat bread, and let thine heart be merry: I will give thee the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite.

8 So she wrote letters in Ahab's name, and sealed them with his seal, and sent the letters unto the elders and to the nobles that were in his city, dwelling with Naboth.

9 And she wrote in the letters, saying, Proclaim a fast, and set Naboth on high among the people:

10 And set two men, sons of Belial, before him, to bear witness against him, saying, Thou didst blaspheme God and the king. And then carry him out, and stone him, that he may

die.

11 And the men of his city, even the elders and the nobles who were the inhabitants in his city, did as Jezebel had sent unto them, and as it was written in the letters which she had sent unto them.

12 They proclaimed a fast, and set Naboth on high among the people.

2 Heb. in the top of the people.

13 And there came in two men, children of Belial, and sat before him: and the men of Belial witnessed against him, even against Naboth, in the presence of the people, saying, Naboth did blaspheme God and the king. Then they carried him forth out of the city, and stoned him with stones, that he died.

14 Then they sent to Jezebel, saying, Naboth is stoned, and is dead.

15 ¶ And it came to pass, when Jezebel heard that Naboth was stoned, and was dead, that Jezebel said to Ahab, Arise, take possession of the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite, which he refused to give thee for money for Naboth is not alive, but dead.

16 And it came to pass, when Ahab heard that Naboth was dead, that Ahab rose up to go down to the vineyard of Naboth the Jezreelite, to take possession of it.

17 And the word of the LORD came to Elijah the Tishbite, saying,

18 Arise, go down to meet Ahab king of Israel, which is in Samaria: behold, he is in the vineyard of Naboth, whither he is gone down to possess it.

19 And thou shalt speak unto him, saying, Thus saith the LORD, Hast thou killed, and also taken possession? And thou shalt speak unto him, saying, Thus saith the LORD, In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine.

20 And Ahab said to Elijah, Hast thou found me, O mine enemy? And he answered, And he answered, I have found thee: because thou hast sold thyself to work evil in the sight of the LORD.

3 Chap. 14. 10. 2 Kings 9. 8.

21 Behold, I will bring evil upon thee, and will take away thy posterity, and will cut off from Ahab him that pisseth against the wall, and 'him that is shut up and left in Israel,

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22 And will make thine house like the house of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and like the house of 'Baasha the son of Ahijah, for the provocation wherewith thou hast provoked me anger, and made Israel to sin.

to

23 And of Jezebel also spake the LORD, saying, The dogs shall eat Jezebel by the 'wall of Jezreel.

24 Him that dieth of Ahab in the city the dogs shall eat; and him that dieth in the field shall the fowls of the air eat.

25 But there was none like unto Ahab, which did sell himself to work wickedness in

the sight of the LORD, whom Jezebel his wife 10stirred up.

26 And he did very abominably in following idols, according to all things as did the Amorites, whom the LORD cast out before the children of Israel.

27 ¶ And it came to pass, when Ahab heard those words, that he rent his clothes, and put sackcloth upon his flesh, and fasted, and lay in sackcloth, and went softly. 28 And the word of the LORD came to Elijah the Tishbite, saying,

29 Seest thou how Ahab humbleth himself before me? because he humbleth himself before me, I will not bring the evil in his days: but in his son's days will I bring the evil upon his house.

8 2 Kings 9. 36.

Chap. xxi.-In the Septuagint this and the preceding chapter change places.

Verse 3. The inheritance of my fathers.'-On this Michaelis observes: 1 do not find any statute that prohibited an Israelite from exchanging his inheritance; nor was there, indeed, in such exchange, unless when it transferred a person to a different tribe, anything contrary to the intention of the law, which was to prevent his latest posterity from ever being altogether denuded of their land. Perhaps, therefore, it was a piece of mere crossness in Naboth to refuse, in such uncouth terms, not only to sell, but even to exchange his vineyard with king Ahab, 1 Kings xxi. 7. At the same time, it is impossible to vindicate the despotic measure to which the barbarous wife of this too obsequious monarch had recourse in order to obtain it; for certainly Naboth was not obliged to exchange his vineyard unless he chose.'

8. Sealed them with his seal.'-See the note ou Gen. xli. 42, which will explain the necessity of this act in giving validity to the royal order. Our remarks in the note referred to chiefly applied to ring-seals, concerning the antiquity and extended use of which there is no dispute; and we shall now therefore confine our attention to seals of another class, some of which may be considered of

still higher antiquity than even ring-seals. These are engraved stones, not set in metal or worn as rings; and on one of the surfaces of which the requisite figures and characters were inscribed. Such stones were of various form and substance. We are told that the Egyptians after trying various forms-as cylinders, squares, and pyramids, settled on that of the scarabæus or beetle; that is to say, a stone, something like the half of a walnut, had its convexity wrought into the form of a beetle, while the flat under surface contained the inscription for the seal. We mentioned in the note to Deut. iv. 16, that the beetle was one of the vermin worshipped by the Egyptians, and was the favourite symbol of some nine or ten virtues and powers of physical or moral nature: this, as well as the convenience of the form, no doubt dictated its selection for this service. The beetle form of seals and other engraved stones was extensively adopted, along with the art of stoneengraving, by other nations, and was long retained by them. We know that they were in use among the Phonician neighbours of the Israelites; and it is not impossible that Ahab's seal may have been of this kind: for after he, and Solomon before him, are seen to have been so fond of the gods and goddesses of the Phoenicians, it would have been a small thing to have adopted their seals also. Even

the Greeks retained this derived form, till they thought of dispensing with the body of the beetle, only preserving for the inscription the flat oval which the base presented, and which they ultimately set in rings. Of this kind of beetleseal the cut under Exod. viii. may serve as a representation, being of the same form and character, and similarly inscribed on the under surface, although of course that ponderous and colossal scarabæus could not be intended for a seal. It will be important to observe, that the body of the beetle was bored, like all other seals that were not rings, so that a string might be inserted by which the seal was worn around the neck or attached to other parts of the body. This may explain what is sometimes said in Scripture of the seal being upon the arm or hand: and, in fact, until the custom of attaching seals to watches became prevalent, the ancient practice of attaching all seals, other than rings, to the person, continued in use. They were usually worn on the arm or wrist as bracelets; and instances of the practice occur so late as the seventeenth century, when an advertisement appeared in the Mercurius Politicus, No. 30, 1660, describing as lost, a gold seal, being a coat of arms, cut in a piece of gold, in the form of a lozenge, fastened to a black riband to tie about the wrist.'

Kindred in principle to this beetle-seal are two of those sorts represented in our present cut. One is oval, and the other orbicular, with a piece cut off, in both, to afford a flat surface for the inscription. The use of these as seals is unquestioned, as well as their high antiquity; and they are dug up so frequently in Persia, Babylonia, Syria, Phoenicia, and Egypt, as to demonstrate their common character. Some of them have been found on the plain of Marathon in Greece, inscribed in the ancient Persian style ; and, as Sir W. Ouseley conjectures, probably belonged to the Persians who invaded Greece, and who were slain there. This is a circumstance of considerable importance in determining their antiquity. The semi-ovals are the most Both kinds are always perforated: and the

common.

perforation is so unusually large in the hemispherical seals, that, if they were not sometimes worn as rings, it is probable that they at least suggested the idea of seal-rings. With so large a perforation, the convenience of wearing it on the finger would easily occur; and the thickness, which it was necessary the stone should exhibit, to prevent breaking, would suggest the fabrication of such rings with metal, and, ultimately, of combining the advantages of a metallic circlet with a stone tablet, by setting the latter in the former. We throw out this idea as a probability, without entering into the various considerations by which it might be corroborated. But we here insert a cut of a gold ring.

found at Pompeii, which will, by comparison with the hemispherical seals in the miscellaneous cut, suggest some idea of the analogy we have in view. These semi-oval and hemispherical seals were probably such as were in use among the mass of the people. We hardly know to what extent seals were in use among the Hebrews; but, judging from existing usage in the East, we should suppose that every one above the lowest condition of life possessed one; and we think that, when not a ring-seal, it may fairly be presumed that they were of some one, or all three, of the classes to which the account here given refers. Herodotus states, that every Babylonian possessed a seal or signet; but takes no notice of their form, which however seems to be sufficiently shewn by the still existing antiques which now engage our attention.

It remains to notice the cylinders, of which our cut exhibits some interesting specimens. These curious antiques are most commonly found in Chaldea and Persia, and sometimes, though more rarely, in Syria and Egypt. They are cylindrical masses of hæmatite, cornelian, opal, jasper, agate, and other hard and precious stones. Their size is various, some being ten times as large as others; but in general they are from three-fourths of an inch to more than two inches in length, and of such proportionate circumference as our woodcut exhibits. They are bored longitudinally, and the rounded surface is engraved over with various figures, generally of animate subjects, and apparently mythological, or expressing astronomical facts by impersonation. It was at one time conceived that these cylinders were merely worn as amulets or talismans, but it is now generally admitted that they served the purpose of seals; the longitudinal perforation being principally intended for the reception of an axis, on which the cylinder was made to revolve when rendering its impression. The axis and handle, represented in our cut, to one of the cylinders there given, is not found in any such cylinders, but was added, by Sir William Hamilton, to one in the British Museum, for the purpose of shewing the manner in which they were employed. The conclusion that the cylinders were seals, has been much strengthened by the curious and discursive inquiries of Mr. John Landseer, as exhibited in his volume entitled Sabaan Researches. Whatever value may be attached to his speculations concerning the inscriptions which such cylinders exhibit, few persons will now question his conclusions concerning the use to which they were applied. Indeed, we have personally found, that this use is generally recognized by the gentlemen acquainted with the antiquities and literature of the East, who reside on or near the sites where these remarkable antiquities are discovered. The present writer can adduce one fact which he considers to afford a very strong support to this conclusion. When himself in Babylonia, he saw a cylinder, of medium size, inscribed with Hebrew characters, expressing the name and style of the Prince of the Captivity,' a title which, from the time the Jews resided as captives in Babylonia, has been borne by the chief person among those who remained in that land. The manner in which the name and title were exhibited, together with the date, so clearly denoted its character as an official seal, that it was distinctly recognized as such even by those resident Hebrews who had no previous idea that cylinders were other than amulets, and who remained uncertain as to the mode in which they could be applied to use. We have lost the memorandum of its date; but it was not of the most remote antiquity, and we mention it merely to confirm the impression that these cylinders were seals, which is the only point for which evidence has ever been wanted, for their very high antiquity has never been questioned. As seals, they must have been known to the Jews while at Babylon, and afterwards; and perhaps at a much earlier period. And probably they used them with such inscriptions of name and style as that to which we have referred; for it is evident that, according to their law, they could not use those which bore such idolatrous and mythological figures as we usually observe on cylinders-although there were many of the kings, Ahab for one, who perhaps had no scruples on this point. Indeed, Mr. Landseer, without being aware of the instance we have cited, and which we believe is the only one of the kind which has hitherto been brought to light, coincides in the conclusion that the inscriptions on the Hebrew signets were literal, containing the names, etc., of the proprietors; the hieroglyphical inscriptions used by other nations being included in the interdiction of 'graven images. This explanation renders interesting the specimens of these prohibited inscriptions which we have introduced in the cut prefixed to this note; and which may also be taken as furnishing curious examples of very ancient engraving on stone, to which there is repeated reference in the Pentateuch. We trust that the above considerations, with the facts stated in Gen. xli. 42, will tend to illustrate most of the passages of Scripture in which

seals are mentioned. For such of these facts and inferences as we are not ourselves responsible for, we are principally indebted to Landseer's Sabaan Researches ; Sir W. Ouseley's Travels, vol. i., Append. xiii.; and the articles Scarabée' and Sceau,' in the Encyclopédie Méthodique,' sect. 'Antiquités.'

9. She wrote in letters.'-Jezebel is the only name mentioned in Scripture in connection with the writing of letters; and if we could be sure that she wrote them herself, it might lead to the supposition that, as she was of Tyre, the Phoenician women were better educated than the daughters of Israel. But it is on every account more probable, that Ahab's wife is here described as doing herself, what she caused to be done by others. At the present day, throughout the East, there is hardly one woman in ten thousand who can write, and we have a very lively recollection of the excited astonishment and admiration manifested by Eastern men, and still more by the women, in occasionally perceiving a lady belonging to one of the parties with which we travelled, engaged in writing her journal. The earnestness with which one would call to another to hasten to see a woman writing, was at once affecting and amusing.

16. Take possession of it.'-It would seem from this transaction, as well as from 2 Sam. xvi. 4, that the estates of persons convicted of offences against the state, were forfeited to the king, as in most other countries. And as the inalienable nature of landed property among the Hebrews must have rendered it difficult for the kings to acquire extensive demesnes, by purchase or any other fair means, the temptation must have been very considerable to charge persons with treason for the sake of the succession to their estates. Perhaps, therefore, it is in such melancholy affairs as that now before us, that we are to seek an explanation concerning the innocent blood' which the more wicked of the kings are so frequently accused of having shed. This is confirmed by the fact, that in the prophet Ezekiel's vision of the future reformation both of the church and state-which at least indicates the abuses of preceding times-we are told that then the prince was to have his own portion, which he must neither alienate nor enlarge, that the princes, it is added, may no longer oppress the people, but leave the rest of the land to the Israelites (Ezek. xlv. 7, 8; xlvi. 16-18); where it is further expressly ordained that the prince must no longer give lands to his family out of the people's portions, but out of his own.

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19. In the place where dogs licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick thy blood.'-There has been much discussion with respect to the fulfilment of this prediction. At first it was no doubt intimated that it should be literally fulfilled; but upon Ahab's repentance, as stated in v. 29, the punishment was transferred from himself to his son Jehoram, in whom it was actually accomplished, his body being cast by Jehu into the portion of Naboth at Jezreel, for the dogs to devour (2 Kings ix. 25). The blood of Ahab was indeed licked by dogs, but not at Jezreel, nor in the portion of Naboth-but at Samaria: those therefore who urge that the doom of Ahab was literally accomplished in his own person, contend that the Hebrew word which our version renders by the place where,' must be regarded not as denoting the spot where, but the manner in which the doom was to be accomplished, as if to read: As (for in like manner') dogs licked the blood of Naboth, even so shall dogs lick thy blood, even thine.' 27. Went softly.'-This was one of the acts of mourn ing, which may be traced among many Eastern nations. It consists in a slow timid manner of walking, usually barefoot within but not without doors, well suited to the state of mourners, labouring under much sorrow and dejection of mind. This style of movement in mourning is so natural, that almost every one falls into it almost unconsciously among ourselves, without its attracting notice as a peculiar usage. Mourning is exhibited in some acts which are conventional, and in others which are spontaneously natural. This is of the natural.

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CHAPTER XXII.

1 Ahab, seduced by false prophets, according to the word of Micaiah, is slain at Ramoth-gilead. 37 The dogs lick up his blood, and Ahaziah succeedeth him. 41 Jehoshaphat's good reign. 45 His acts. 50 Jehoram succeedeth him. 51 Ahaziah's evil reign. AND they continued three years without war between Syria and Israel.

2 And it came to pass in the third year, that Jehoshaphat the king of Judah came down to the king of Israel.

3 And the king of Israel said unto his servants, Know ye that Ramoth in Gilead is our's, and we be still, and take it not out of the hand of the king of Syria?

4 And he said unto Jehoshaphat, Wilt thou go with me to battle to Ramoth-gilead? And Jehoshaphat said to the king of Israel, 'I am as thou art, my people as thy people, my horses as thy horses.

5 ¶ And Jehoshaphat said unto the king of Israel, Enquire, I pray thee, at the word of the LORD to day.

6 Then the king of Israel gathered the prophets together, about four hundred men, and said unto them, Shall I go against Ramothgilead to battle, or shall I forbear? And they said, Go up; for the LORD shall deliver it into the hand of the king.

7 ¶ And Jehoshaphat said, Is there not here a prophet of the LORD besides, that we might enquire of him?

8 And the king of Israel said unto Jehoshaphat, There is yet one man, Micaiah the son of Imlah, by whom we may enquire of the LORD: but I hate him; for he doth not prophesy good concerning me, but evil. And Jehoshaphat said, Let not the king say so.

9 Then the king of Israel called an 'officer, and said, Hasten hither Micaiah the son of Imlah.

10 And the king of Israel and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah sat each on his throne, having put on their robes, in a 'void place in the entrance of the gate of Samaria; and all the prophets prophesied before them.

11 And Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah made him horns of iron: and he said, Thus saith the LORD, With these shalt thou push the Syrians, until thou have consumed them.

12 Ánd all the prophets prophesied so, saying, Go up to Ramoth-gilead, and prosper: for the LORD shall deliver it into the king's hand.

13 And the messenger that was gone to 2 Heb. silent from taking it.

12 Chron. 18. 1, &c. 6 Or, deceive.

7 2 Chron. 18. 23.

11-

call Micaiah spake unto him, saying, Behold now, the words of the prophets declare good unto the king with one mouth: let thy word, I pray thee, be like the word of one of them, and speak that which is good.

14 And Micaiah said, As the LORD liveth, what the LORD saith unto me, that will I speak.

15 So he came to the king. And the king said unto him, Micaiah, shall we go against Ramoth-gilead to battle, or shall we forbear? And he answered him, Go, and prosper for the LORD shall deliver it into the hand of the king.

16 And the king said unto him, How many times shall I adjure thee that thou tell me nothing but that which is true in the name of the LORD?

17 And he said, I saw all Israel scattered upon the hills, as sheep that have not a shepherd: and the LORD said, These have no master let them return every man to his house in peace.

18 And the king of Israel said unto Jehoshaphat, Did I not tell thee that he would prophesy no good concerning me, but evil?

19 And he said, Hear thou therefore the word of the LORD: I saw the LORD sitting on his throne, and all the host of heaven standing by him on his right hand and on his left.

20 And the LORD said, Who shall 'persuade Ahab, that he may go up and fall at Ramothgilead? And one said on this manner, and another said on that manner.

21 And there came forth a spirit, and stood before the LORD, and said, I will per

suade him.

22 And the LORD said unto him, Wherewith? And he said, I will go forth, and I will be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. And he said, Thou shalt persuade him, and prevail also: go forth, and do so.

23 Now therefore, behold, the LORD hath put a lying spirit in the mouth of all these thy prophets, and the LORD hath spoken evil concerning thee.

24 But Zedekiah the son of Chenaanah went near, and smote Micaiah on the cheek, and said, 'Which way went the Spirit of the LORD from me to speak unto thee?

25 And Micaiah said, Behold, thou shalt see in that day, when thou shalt go into 'an inner chamber to hide thyself.

26 And the king of Israel said, Take Micaiah, and carry him back unto Amon the