the rivers of Damascus are not less extolled by the present inhabitants than they were by Naaman of old.

17. Two mules' burden of earth.-The proceedings and requests of Naaman are throughout very remarkable for the illustration which they furnish of the great antiquity of many still existing usages and ideas. However the present application be interpreted, it must still intimate that the Syrian attributed a particular sanctity to the earth of the country in which the true God, whose power he had experienced, was known and worshipped. He might have taken as much earth as he pleased without troubling the prophet; but he probably thought, that whatever virtue it might possess, would be the greater if it were received from, or with the consent of, so holy a person. It is generally understood, that he intended with the earth to raise an altar of earth (according to the law) in his own country; and although the law does not direct any parti

cular earth to be preferred for the purpose, it was perhaps excusable in so young a convert as Naaman, to conclude that the earth of Palestine would be preferable. But by the law of Mohammed, earth is allowed for the performance of ceremonial ablutions when water cannot be obtained a person rubs himself with earth as he would with water, and he is clean. Is it not conceivable that Naaman, having so lately experienced so much benefit through the waters of Jordan, might have desired, in his distant home, to use the waters of the land thenceforth in his ablutions; and being unable to secure this benefit directly, sought to do so representatively, by means of the earth of the same land? But the Mohammedans also use the soil of their holy land Mecca in their devotions. They carry continually about with them a small quantity of it, in a little bag; and when they pray, they deposit this so that whenever their devotional ceremonies require them to

lay their head to the ground, it may be placed upon this consecrated earth. But there is still another use for the earth of reputed holy places. He is considered particularly happy who can obtain interment in the land itself; but if this be impracticable, he is in the next degree blessed who, in his own country, can secure such interment representatively, by being laid upon a bed of the sacred earth, or his head being placed upon a pillow of it, or some portion of it being in some way or other associated with his mortal remains. Mohammedanism affords examples enough of this; but we need not go so far; for to this day the same practice prevails among the Jews in England and elsewhere. He is the happiest of men, who, in the evening of his days, can go to Jerusalem, and die and be buried there; he is happy in the next degree who dies and is buried in some country near the sacred land. The happiness diminishes with distance. But he is not unhappy in any country, however distant, with whose remains the smallest quantity of Jerusalem earth may be associated in the grave. In countries not remote from Palestine, a pillow of it may sometimes be laid under the head; but the general practice, here and elsewhere, is only for a very small quantity-as much as will lie upon a shilling-to be placed upon each eye. Hyam Isaacs (Ceremonies of the Jews,' 1836) says that during the late war, when the sea was infested by French privateers, which prevented the supplies of earth from coming in regular time, Jerusalem earth was often so scarce, that only half the usual quantity was employed. The earth is sent in barrels by the Rabbies at Jerusalem; and to prevent deception on the road, they deposit in each barrel certain articles, carefully distributed, which are mentioned in the invoice; so that on the arrival of the barrel, the identity of its contents is established by a careful comparison of the character and situation of the various articles there found with the indications of the invoice, which states, for instance, that, four inches from the top, there is a knife; a foot below, a piece of cloth, etc. For which of all these purposes the Syrian soldier desired to possess two mules' load of earth, the reader will determine according

to the impression which the narrative makes upon his mind.

18. Rimmon.'-This name does not elsewhere occur in the Bible, nor is it mentioned by any ancient writer. It is therefore wholly uncertain what idol it denotes; but there has been no want of conjecture, which, in the absence of more certain data, has proceeded chiefly on the meanings which might be etymologically extorted from the name. The usual and proper signification of the word is that of a 'pomegranate,' though, by breaking it up, and speculating on its component syllables, other meanings may be found. A meaning implying 'elevation,' or 'exaltation,' in some form or other, is that which is usually elicited by this process. Of all the opinions, the most probable seem to be those which make Rimmon to have been either the sun, or the planetary system collectively taken; and, in either case, the pomegranate may have been the sacred and denominating symbol. Its figure-that of an orb surmounted by a star-with the peculiarities of arrangement and ap pearance exhibited by its granulated contents, offered good materials for such a symbolization as the ancient idolaters were accustomed to employ.

27. The leprosy... cleave unto thee, and unto thy seed for ever.'-Maundrell having received a letter, asking him if he knew what was become of Gehazi's leprous posterity, returned the best answer that could be given to this rather curious question. When I was in the Holy Land I saw several that laboured under Gehazi's distemper; but none that could pretend to derive his pedigree from that person. Some of them were poor enough to be his relations. Particularly at Sichem (now Naplosa), there were no less than ten (the same number that was cleansed by our Saviour not far from the same place) that came a begging to us at one time. Their manner is to come with small buckets in their hands, to receive the alms of the charitable, their touch being still held infectious, or at least unclean.' He then describes the distemper, but we do not quote his description, because we do not think it refers to Gehazi's leprosy, which, from what follows-'a leper as white as snow-was clearly the leprosis lepriasis

candida, described in the note to Levit. xiii. 5. Maundrell then concludes: 'Tis no wonder if the descent from him be by this time obscured; seeing the best of the Jews, at this time of day, are at a loss to make out their genealogies. But besides, I see no necessity in Scripture for his line being perpetuated. The term (for ever) is, you

know, often taken in a limited sense in holy writ; of which the designation of Phinehas's family to the priesthood (Num. xxv. 13) may serve for an instance. His posterity was, you know, cut entirely off from the priesthood, and that transferred to Eli (who was of another line) about three hundred years after.'

CHAPTER VI.

1 Elisha, giving leave to the young prophets to enlarge their dwellings, causeth iron to swim. 8 He discloseth the king of Syria's counsel. 13 The army, which was sent to Dothan to apprehend Elisha, is smitten with blindness. 19 Being brought into Samaria, they are dismissed in peace. 24 The famine

in Samaria causeth women to eat their own children. 30 The king sendeth to slay Elisha.

AND the sons of the prophets said unto Elisha, Behold now, the place where we dwell with thee is too strait for us.

2 Let us go, we pray thee, unto Jordan, and take thence every man a beam, and let us make us a place there, where we may dwell. And he answered, Go ye.

3 And one said, Be content, I pray thee,
with thy servants.
And he answered,

and

go

I will go.

4 So he went with them. And when they came to Jordan, they cut down wood.

5 But as one was felling a beam, the 'ax head fell into the water and he cried, and said, Alas, master! for it was borrowed.

6 And the man of God said, Where fell it? And he shewed him the place. And he cut down a stick, and cast it in thither; and the iron did swim.

7 Therefore said he, Take it up to thee. And he put out his hand, and took it.

8 Then the king of Syria warred against Israel, and took counsel with his servants, saying, In such and such a place shall be my 'camp.

9 And the man of God sent unto the king of Israel, saying, Beware that thou pass not such a place; for thither the Syrians are come down.

10 And the king of Israel sent to the place which the man of God told him and warned him of, and saved himself there, not once nor twice.

11 ¶ Therefore the heart of the king of Syria was sore troubled for this thing; and he called his servants, and said unto them, Will ye not shew me which of us is for the king of Israel?

12 And one of his servants said, "None, 2 Or, encamping.

1 Heb. iron.

my lord, O king but Elisha, the prophet that is in Israel, telleth the king of Israel the words that thou speakest in thy bedchamber.

13 And he said, Go and spy where he is, that I may send and fetch him. And it was told him, saying, Behold, he is in Dothan. 14 Therefore sent he thither horses, and chariots, and a 'great host: and they came by night, and compassed the city about.

15 T And when the 'servant of the man of God was risen early, and gone forth, behold, an host compassed the city both with horses and chariots. And his servant said unto him, Alas, my master! how shall we do?

16 And he answered, Fear not for they that be with us are more than they that be with them.

17 And Elisha prayed, and said, LORD, I pray thee, open his eyes, that he may see. And the LORD opened the eyes of the young man; and he saw: and, behold, the mountain was full of horses and chariots of fire round about Elisha.

18 ¶ And when they came down to him, Elisha prayed unto the LORD, and said, Smite this people, I pray thee, with blindness. And he smote them with blindness according to the word of Elisha.

19 And Elisha said unto them, This is not the way, neither is this the city: 'follow me, and I will bring you to the man whom ye seek. But he led them to Samaria.

20 And it came to pass, when they were come into Samaria, that Elisha said, LORD, open the eyes of these men, that they may see. And the LORD opened their eyes, and they saw; and, behold, they were in the midst of Samaria.

21 And the king of Israel said unto Elisha, when he saw them, My father, shall I smite them? shall I smite them?

22 And he answered, Thou shalt not smite them wouldest thou smite those whom thou hast taken captive with thy sword and with thy bow? set bread and water before them, that they may eat and drink, and go to their master.

23 And he prepared great provision for them: and when they had eaten and drunk,

he sent them away, and they went to their master. So the bands of Syria came no more into the land of Israel.

24 And it came to pass after this, that Ben-hadad king of Syria gathered all his host, and went up, and besieged Samaria.

::

25 And there was a great famine in Samaria and, behold, they besieged it, until an ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver, and the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver..

26 And as the king of Israel was passing by upon the wall, there cried a woman unto him, saying, Help, my lord, O king.

27 And he said, "If the LORD do not help thee, whence shall I help thee? out of the barnfloor, or out of the winepress ?

28 And the king said unto her, What aileth thee? And she answered, This woman said unto me, Give thy son, that we may eat him to day, and we will eat my son to morrow.

29 So we boiled my son, and did eat him: and I said unto her on the next day, Give

10.

8 Or, Let not the LORD save thee.

thy son, that we may eat him: and she hath hid her son.

30 And it came to pass, when the king heard the words of the woman, that he rent his clothes; and he passed by upon the wall, and the people looked, and, behold, he had sackcloth within upon his flesh.

31 Then he said, God do so and more also to me, if the head of Elisha the son of Shaphat shall stand on him this day.

32 But Elisha sat in his house, and the elders sat with him; and the king sent a man from before him: but ere the messenger came to him, he said to the elders, See ye how this son of a murderer hath sent to take away mine head? look, when the messenger cometh, shut the door, and hold him fast at the door: is not the sound of his master's feet behind him?

33 And while he yet talked with them, behold, the messenger came down unto him: and he said, Behold, this evil is of the LORD; what should I wait for the LORD any longer?

Verse 25. An ass's head was sold for fourscore pieces of silver. As the ass was not allowed for food by the law of Moses, there have been some ingenious attempts to prove that the corn measure called homer, and not the head of an ass (hamor), is intended. But besides the liberty taken with the usual exhibition of the word, how are we to read 'the head of a corn measure?' or how account for the absence of the usual specification of the kind of corn intended? The uncleanness of the animal could be no objection when mothers were reduced to such extremities as to eat their own children. The price paid (if shekels be intended, as the Targum explains) was nearly equal to about ten pounds of our money-which shews very strikingly the melancholy condition of the besieged town with respect to food. The case is not without example. Plutarch, in his life of Artaxerxes, notices a famine which happened in the army of that monarch, in the country of the Cadusii (near the Caspian). This vast army could find nothing fit to eat in so poor a country, nor could supplies be brought to them from a distance; whence they were obliged to live upon their horses and beasts of burden; and this kind of provision sold at a very high price, so that the head of an ass could not be obtained for less than sixty silver drachmæ, equal to nearly two pounds sterling, which, however, was a low price, compared with what the unhappy Israelites in Samaria paid. We wish here to mention, that in stating corresponding values in English money, our own price for the same weight of gold or silver only is given, without taking into account the real value of money as influenced by the cost of commodities in different ages and countries. the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung for five pieces of silver. This was about half a pint for 12s. 6d. There has been much diversity of opinion about this 'dove's dung.' Some of the Rabbins inform us that it was used for fuel; Josephus says that it was purchased for its salt; some think it means grain taken from the crops of pigeons, which could of course get out of the besieged town and feed in the open country; many believe that it was wanted for manure; and Bochart, followed by most modern commentators, contends that the name, though literally 'dove's dung,' means an article of vegetable food. As he observes,

the Arabs give the name of 'dove's dung' to a kind of moss that grows on trees and stony ground, and also to a sort of pulse or pea which appears to have been very common in Judea, and which may be the article here indicated. Large quantities of it are parched and dried, and stored in magazines at Cairo and Damascus. It is much used during journeys, and particularly by the great pilgrim caravan to Mecca; and if the conjecture be correct, it may be supposed to have been among the provisions stored up in the besieged city, and sold at the extravagant price mentioned in the text. It is clear that, if dove's dung be really intended, it could not be used as an article of food; and then we are thrown upon its use as manure. This use is best exemplified in Persia, where it is highly valued for quickening the growth and improving the quality of melons and other cucurbitaceous vegetables. These form such essential articles of food in some warm climates, that vast quantities are consumed; and in besieged towns, persons who have been rather delicately brought up have been known to pine away, and die, for the want of such essential provision, even when corn was abundant. On this point Mr. Morier observes: The dung of doves is the dearest manure which the Persians use; and as they apply it almost entirely to the rearing of melons, it is probably on that account that the melons of Ispahan are so much finer than those of other cities. The revenue of a pigeon-house is about a hundred tomauus per annum and the great value of this dung, which rears a fruit that is indispensable to the existence of the natives during the great heats of summer, will probably throw some light on that passage of Scripture, where, in the famine of Samaria, the fourth part of a cab of dove's dung was sold for five pieces of silver.' (Second Journey, p. 141.) There is another conjecture on this perplexed matter which has found recent advocates. The root of the common Star of Bethlehem is a white roundish bulb, edible when boiled, and a favourite article of food in the Levant. Linnæus declares his belief that this is the 'dove's dung' of the text. This plant has the name of Ornithogalum umbellatum, and, says Dr. Edward Smith in his English Botany, if Linnæus is right, we obtain a

sort of clue to the derivation of Ornithogalum (Bird's milk) which has puzzled all the etymologists. May not this observation apply to the white fluid which always accompanies the dung of birds and is their urine? One may almost perceive a similar combination of colours in the green and white of this flower, which accords precisely in this respect with the description which Dioscorides gives of his Ornithogalum.' Linnæus advanced the notion in question, not only in his Genera Plantarum, but subsequently in his Prælectiones, published by Dr. Gieske at Hamburgh, in 1789. Still the literal interpretation of the text is not to be rejected as a thing incredible. Our inability to apprehend such things, or our reluctance to receive them, arises in a great measure from our happy exemption from all practical knowledge of the dreadful extremities to which starving people may be reduced. Abdallatiff, in his graphic description of the famine which afflicted Egypt, and particularly Misr (Fostat, or Old Cairo), in the year A.H. 597 (commencing October 1200, A.D.), states: As soon as the sun had entered the sign of Aries the air became corrupted; pestilence and a mortal contagion began to shew themselves; and the poor, already pressed by the famine which increased continually, were driven to devour dogs, and the carcases of animals and men, yea, even the excrements of both.' Let it be observed, that in our text it is not said that the ass's head and the cab of dove's dung were statedly sold at such prices, but that instances were known of such prices having been given.

29. We boiled my son, and did eat him.'--This was foretold by Moses (see Deut. xxviii. 53); and similar things happened at the siege of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar (Ezek. v. 10), and again, when the same city was besieged by the Romans under Titus, as foretold by Christ. As illustrating the present text, nothing more expressive could be adduced than what Josephus relates concerning that most horrible and fatal siege, with all its fearful circumstances of famine, demoralization, and despair. The instance to which we more particularly refer is that of a woman of superior station, who, when the famine pierced through her very bowels and marrow,' slew her son, roasted the body, and had devoured part of it, when the fearful deed was discovered by others who were going about like wolves ravening for food.

The account given by Abdallatiff of the famine which desolated Egypt, in the year 597 A.H., supplies many points terribly illustrative of this state of affairs in Samaria, as well as of the similar calamities to which reference has been made there. Some of these details we may adduce, passing by many which are too horrible to be produced here. After the passage quoted under v. 25, Abdallatiff goes on to state: They went farther and began to feed on young children. It was no rare thing to surprise persons with infants already roasted or boiled. The commandant of the city caused those to be burnt alive who committed this crime, as well as those who ate of such food. In this he certainly acted with more decision than the king of Israel. What Abdallatiff proceeds to state respecting the gradually diminished horror with which, as the scarcity continued, such doings were regarded, deserves the most profound attention on more accounts than one: When the poor people first began thus to eat human flesh, the horror and astonishment excited by a course so extraordinary, were so great, that these crimes were the general topic of conversation; and the people could not exhaust themselves upon the subject; but afterwards they became so accustomed to it, and even conceived such a taste for this horrible food, that you might find persons who made their ordinary repasts of it, ate it with relish, and even laid up a provision of it. They invented different modes of preparing this food, and the use of it being once introduced spread throughout the provinces; so that there was no part of Egypt where there were not examples of it. It no longer caused the least surprise; the horror which had been felt at first, subsided entirely; and every one spoke of it, and heard it spoken of as an indifferent and ordinary matter.' Abdallatiff adds several anecdotes

illustrative of this state of things, a few of which we may quote. I saw one day a woman, wounded on the head, whom some of the common people were dragging through a market. They had arrested her while she was eating a small infant roasted, which they had seized with her. The people who were in the market paid no regard to this spectacle, but went every one about his own business. I perceived in none of these any sign of astonishment or horror, a circumstance which occasioned me more surprise than the crime itself. This indifference proceeded in truth, only from the fact, that the sight of these cruelties had already often presented itself to them; so that they were now among the number of those things to which one is accustomed, and which have no longer any power to cause an impression of surprise.'....It happened one evening, not long after the hour of prayer, which is when the sun has wholly disappeared below the horizon, that a slave was playing with a child newly weaned, belonging to a wealthy private citizen. While the infant was still at his side, a female beggar seized a moment when his eyes were turned from the child, ripped up its belly, and began to eat the flesh all raw. Many females have related to me that persons had thrown themselves upon them in order to snatch from them their infants; and that they were obliged to employ all their efforts to preserve them from their ravishers. Seeing one day a woman with a small child, just weaned, and very plump, I admired the child, and recommended her to take good care of it. On which she related to me, that while she was walking along the banks of the canal, a stout man had thrown himself upon her, and attempted to snatch her infant away from her; and that she had found no other way of protecting it but to throw herself upon the ground and hold it under her, until a cavalier who happened to pass, forced the man to quit her. She added, that the villain snatched eagerly the opportunity to seize any limb of the child that protruded from under her, in order to devour it; and that the child was ill a long time from the sprains and bruises which it received from the contrary efforts of the ravisher and herself, the one to snatch the child and the other to retain it. One saw everywhere the children of the poor, both of the tenderest years and also older, who no longer had any one to take care of them or guard them [their parents having died], but were scattered through all the quarters of the city, and even in the narrowest streets, like locusts which had fallen upon the fields. The poor people, men and women, lay in wait for their unfortunate children, carried them off, and devoured them. You could not surprise the guilty persons in this flagrant act, except rarely, and when they were not well on their guard. It was most commonly women who were seized with these proofs of their crime; a circumstance, which, in my opinion, arises from the fact, that women have less presence of mind than men, and cannot flee with so much promptitude, and conceal themselves from search. In the course of a few days thirty women were burnt at Misr, not one of whom but confessed that she had eaten of several children.' After many instances of the various forms in which this enormity was manifested, this writer proceeds to speak of the bodies of the recent dead being devoured by their relations. Nothing was more common than to hear those who thus ate human flesh, allege, in justification, that it was the body of their son, their husband, or of some other near relative. An old woman was found eating the flesh of a male child; she excused herself by saying that it was her daughter's son, and not the child of another; and that it was better the child should be eaten by her than by any other person.'

How forcibly all this illustrates and explains the words of Moses: The tender and delicate woman among you, which would not adventure to set the sole of her foot upon the ground for delicateness and tenderness, her eye shall be evil toward the husband of her bosom, and toward her son and toward her daughter....for she shall eat them for want of all things secretly in the siege and straitness, wherewith thine enemy shall distress thee in thy gates.' (Deut. xxviii. 56, 57.)

CHAPTER VII.

1 Elisha prophesieth incredible plenty in Samaria. 3 Four lepers, venturing on the host of the Syrians, bring tidings of their flight. 12 The king, finding by spies the news to be true, spoileth the tents of the Syrians. 17 The lord who would not believe the prophecy of plenty, having the charge of the gate, is trodden to death in the press.

THEN Elisha said, Hear ye the word of the LORD; Thus saith the LORD, To morrow about this time shall a measure of fine flour be

sold for a shekel, and two measures of barley for a shekel, in the gate of Samaria.

2 Then 'a lord on whose hand the king leaned answered the man of God, and said, Behold, if the LORD would make windows in heaven, might this thing be? And he said, Behold, thou shalt see it with thine eyes, but

shalt not eat thereof.

3 ¶ And there were four leprous men at the entering in of the gate: and they said one to another, Why sit we here until we die?

4 If we say, we will enter into the city, then the famine is in the city, and we shall die there and if we sit still here, we die also. Now therefore come, and let us fall unto the host of the Syrians: if they save us alive, we shall live; and if they kill us, we shall but die. 5 And they rose up in the twilight, to go unto the camp of the Syrians: and when they were come to the uttermost part of the camp of Syria, behold, there was no man there.

6 For the LORD had made the host of the Syrians to hear a noise of chariots, and a noise of horses, even the noise of a great host: and they said one to another, Lo, the king of Israel hath hired against us the kings of the Hittites, and the kings of the Egyptians, to come upon us.

7 Wherefore they arose and fled in the twilight, and left their tents, and their horses, and their asses, even the camp as it was, and fled for their life.

8 And when these lepers came to the uttermost part of the camp, they went into one tent, and did eat and drink, and carried thence silver, and gold, and raiment, and went and hid it; and came again, and entered into another tent, and carried thence also, and went and hid it.

9 Then they said one to another, We do not well this day is a day of good tidings, and we hold our peace: if we tarry till the morning light, some mischief will come upon us: now therefore come, that we may go and tell the king's houshold.

1 Heb. a lord which belonged to the king leaning upon his hand.

10 So they came and called unto the porter of the city and they told them, saying, We came to the camp of the Syrians, and, behold, there was no man there, neither voice of man, but horses tied, and asses tied, and the tents as they were.

11 And he called the porters; and they told it to the king's house within.

12 And the king arose in the night, and said unto his servants, I will now shew you what the Syrians have done to us. They know that we be hungry; therefore are they gone out of the camp to hide themselves in the field, saying, When they come out of the city, we shall catch them alive, and get into the city.

13 And one of his servants answered and said, Let some take, I pray thee, five of the horses that remain, which are left in the city, (behold, they are as all the multitude of Israel that are left in it: behold, I say, they are even as all the multitude of the Israelites that are consumed :) and let us send and see.

14 They took therefore two chariot horses; and the king sent after the host of the Syrians, saying, Go and see.

15 And they went after them unto Jordan : and, lo, all the way was full of garments and vessels, which the Syrians had cast away in their haste. And the messengers returned, and told the king.

16 And the people went out, and spoiled the tents of the Syrians. So a measure of fine flour was sold for a shekel, and two measures of barley for a shekel, according to the word of the LORD.

17 ¶ And the king appointed the lord on whose hand he leaned to have the charge of the gate and the people trode upon him in the gate, and he died, as the man of God had said, who spake when the king came down to him.

18 And it came to pass as the man of God had spoken to the king, saying, Two measures of barley for a shekel, and a measure of fine flour for a shekel, shall be to morrow about this time in the gate of Samaria:

19 And that lord answered the man of God, and said, Now, behold, if the LORD should make windows in heaven, might such a thing be? And he said, Behold, thou shalt see it with thine eyes, but shalt not eat thereof.

20 And so it fell out unto him: for the people trode upon him in the gate, and he died.