the general average, 11, the diversities are, on the whole, too small to warrant any inferences as to the stylistic development of Thucydides, although the last book may possibly have been less thoroughly worked over into the characteristic diction of the author.

In respect of function and usage these nouns show differences sufficient to be made the basis of their classification. They are found:

1. As substantives, pure and simple; as subject, or object, or predicate-noun; and in prepositional phrases.

2. With a genitive objective attached. Here their verbal force is well maintained.

3. Introducing constructions such as would properly follow a verb.

4. In dependence upon a genitive subjective or possessive. 5. In periphrases with ποιεῖσθαι, γίγνεσθαι, ἔχειν, παρέχειν,

εἶναι.

r. The purely substantive nouns in -σις. Of these many are employed by Thucydides in a purely concrete sense; e. g. οἴκησις, ii. 17, 1, ὀλίγοις μέν τισιν ὑπῆρχον οἰκήσεις; ἐνθύμησις, i. 132, 5, κατὰ ἐνθύμησίν τινα; ἀναχώρησις, ‘place of refuge, i. 90, 2, τὴν Πελοπόννησον ἱκανὴν εἶναι ἀναχώρησιν καὶ ἀφορμήν. ἐπίκλησις occurs as a synonym of ὄνομα i. 3, 2 ; καὶ πάνυ οὐδὲ εἶναι ἡ ἐπίκλησις αὕτη. This employment of the nouns in -σις in a concrete sense is particularly manifest where these nouns are coupled with concrete substantives proper, as the correlatives or equivalents of the latter; e. g. vi. 48, καὶ λιμένα καὶ ἐφόρμησιν τῇ στρατιᾷ ἔσεσθαι; iv. 126, 1, βραχεῖ ὑπομνήματι καὶ παραινέσει ; viii. 1, 2, περιειστήκει φόβος καὶ κατάπληξις.

Double compound verbs are changed into verbal nouns as well as simple compounds, and illustrate very strikingly the energy of condensation attained by the writer, however harsh the effect may be. Thus ἀντεξόρμησις, ii. 91, 4, ἀξύμφορον δρῶντες πρὸς τὴν ἐξ ὀλίγου ἀντεξόρμησιν; προεκφόβησις, v. II, 2, ἀπὸ τοιαύτης ξυντυχίας καὶ προεκφοβήσεως.

Plurals occur rarely, mostly in a distributive sense; e. g. i.

..

2, 1, φαίνεται μεταναστάσεις οὖσαι ; iii. 97, 3, καὶ ἦν ἐπὶ πολὺ τοιαύτη ἡ μάχη, διώξεις τε καὶ ὑπαγωγαί; ν. 66, 4, καὶ αἱ παραγγέλσεις, ἤν τι βούλωνται, κατὰ τὰ αὐτὰ χωροῦσι κτλ.; vi. 46, 3, καὶ ἰδίᾳ ξενίσεις ποιούμενοι ἐσέφερον ἐς τὰς ἑστιάσεις ; vii. 12, 5, αἱ ἐπιχειρήσεις ἐπ ̓ ἐκείνοις (ἐισί). In one case the articular infinitive is combined with the plural of the abstract noun, vii. 70, 4, διὰ τὸ μὴ εἶναι τὰς ἀνακρούσεις. The practical use of these nouns for the purpose of brachylogy is very well illustrated in the combination with a complex attributive modifier; thus ii. 18, 4, μάλιστα δὲ ἡ ἐν Οἰνόῃ ἐπίσχεσις (διέβαλεν αὐτόν); ii. 91, 4, ἀξύμφορον δρῶντες πρὸς τὴν ἐξ ὀλίγου ἀντεξόρμησιν ; iii. 1O2, 3, διὰ τὴν ἐκ τῆς Λευκάδος ἀναχώρησιν ; cf. iv. 76, 1 ; vii. 31, 1, μετὰ τὴν ἐκ τῆς Λακωνικῆς τείχισιν ; cf. vii. 44, 8; vii. 86, 5, διὰ τὴν πᾶσαν ἐς ἀρετὴν νενομισμένην ἐπιτήδευσιν.

In a small number of cases nouns in -ois occur as object, and present the full equivalent of what in more common construction would be a complete sub-clause. Thus after verbs of fearing, iii. 33, Ι, δεδιὼς τὴν δίωξιν ; iii. 78, 1, οἱ 'Αθηναῖοι φοβούμενοι τὴν περικύκλωσιν; or after verbs looking toward the future, as σπένδεσθαι, iii. 24, 3, ἐσπένδοντο ἀναίρεσιν τοῖς νεκροῖς; or ψηφίζεσθαι, vii. 48, 1, ψηφιζομένους τὴν ἀναχώρησιν.

2. The second prominent construction in which these nouns are found is that with a genitive objective attached. As to the proportion of occurrence, this is by far the most frequent employment, comprising some 125 out of a total of 400, or some 31 per cent of the whole. This class best exhibits the general function of the formation, retaining on the one hand almost all the active functions of the verb, and lending itself on the other to all the modifiers which nouns may take. Thus there may be expressed with greater precision the logical relation to the leading clause or governing word, be that relation temporal, causal, or purely one of manner, or final, or the equivalent of an indirect statement.

Thus we have the equivalent of temporal clauses, especially through the vinculum of μετά; as in i. 12, 3, μετὰ ̓Ιλίου ἅλωσιν ; i. 18, 1, μετὰ τὴν τῶν τυράννων κατάλυσιν ἐκ τῆς

Ἑλλάδος ; vi. 4, 3, μετὰ Συρακουσῶν οἴκισιν ; vi. 5, 3, μετὰ Συρακουσῶν κτίσιν. Instrumental relation is almost always expressed by the dative, and not by means of diá with the genitive; thus, i. 6, 3, Xpvoŵv tettíywv évépoeɩ ; ii. 37, 3, τῶν ΤΕ ἀεὶ ἐν ἀρχῇ ὄντων ἀκροάσει καὶ τῶν νόμων ; ii. 94, 4, λιμένων τε κλήσει καὶ τῇ ἄλλῃ ἐπιμελείᾳ; iii. 82, 1, τῇ τῶν ἐναντίων κακώ σει καὶ σφίσιν αὐτοῖς ἐκ τοῦ αὐτοῦ προσποιήσει ; iii. 82, 3, ἐπιπύστει τῶν προγεγενημένων ; ibidem, τῶν ἐπιχειρήσεων περιτεχνήσει; iii. 82, 8, ἀριστοκρατίας σώφρονος προτιμήσει ; vii. 48, 3, οὐκ ἄλλων ἐπιτιμήσει; viii. 57, 1-2; μὴ τῆς τροφῆς ζητήσει πορθήσωσι τὴν γῆν.

Purpose and final relation are generally expressed by the vinculum of ἐπί with the dative; iii. 10, 3, ξύμμαχοι μέντοι ἐγενόμεθα οὐκ ἐπὶ καταδουλώσει τῶν ̔Ελλήνων ̓Αθηναίοις, ἀλλ ̓ ἐπ ̓ ἐλευθερώσει ἀπὸ τοῦ Μήδου τοῖς Ἕλλησι ; similarly in v. 27, 2, ἐπὶ καταδουλώσει τῆς Πελοποννήσου ; vi. 82, 1, ἐπὶ τῆς πρότερον οὔσης ξυμμαχίας ἀνανεώσει ; vii. 66, 2, ἐπὶ τῆς Σικελίας καταδουλώσει. εἰς ἐς) and πρός are used to designate result and specification.

Here, too, harshness and obscurity result from excessive accumulation; thus several of these nouns are construed together, composite attributives are inserted, a few double compounds are met with, and in a few cases several of these features are combined. The difficulty of Thucydides, of which some critics make too much and some too little, may be explained in good part from the employment of such constructions. For instance, in i. 25, 4, we have a double compound in -σις governing a genitive objective, and itself depending upon a genitive subjective, κατὰ τὴν τῶν Φαιάκων προενοίκησιν τῆς Κερκύρας ; so i. 137, 4, γράψας τὴν ἐκ Σαλαμῖνος προάγγελσιν τῆς ἀναχωρήσεως καὶ τὴν τῶν γεφυρῶν ἣν ψευδῶς προσεποιήσατο τότε δι' αὑτὸν οὐ διάλυσιν. The harshness of Thucydides in such constructions has often been adverted to by critics from Dionysius onward. A similar case of accumulated modifiers is found in v. 35, 2, κατὰ τὴν τῶν χωρίων ἀλλήλοις οὐκ ἀπόδοσιν ; iv. 81, 2, του πολέμου ἀπὸ τῆς Πελοποννήσου λώφησιν ; ν. 50, 4, κατὰ τὴν οὐκ ἐξουσίαν τῆς ἀγωνίσεως; iv. 126, 5, ἥ τε διὰ κενῆς ἐπανάσεισις τῶν ὅπλων ἔχει τινὰ δήλωσιν ἀπειλῆς. The

บ

accumulation reaches a climax in v. 65, 2, δηλῶν τῆς ἐξ "Αργους ἐπαιτίου ἀναχωρήσεως τὴν παροῦσαν ἄκαιρον προθυμίαν ἀνάληψιν βουλόμενον εἶναι ; and again in v. 105, 1, οὐδὲν γὰρ ἔξω τῆς ἀνθρωπείας τῶν μὲν ἐς τὸ θεῖον νομίσεως, τῶν δὲ ἐς σφᾶς αὐτοὺς βουλήσεως δικαιοῦμεν ἢ πράσσομεν. In vii. 34, 6 we have a rather harsh combination of genitive subjective and objective, viz., διὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀνέμου ἄπωσιν αὐτῶν ἐς τὸ πέλαγος. This excessive striving after condensation leads Thucydides to attach a genitive objective directly to a noun in -σs the etymology of which does not really permit such directness, as in the phrase ἐν ἀποβάσει τῆς γῆς, i. 108, 5. Here ἀπόβασις is not, what it often is, a concrete thing, 'landing-place,' but (as the context proves — against Liddell and Scott) the abstract active noun in a modal sense, equivalent to ἀποβαίνοντες ἐς τὴν γῆν.

3. In the third class, a small one, we place those which have other and most specifically verbal construction attached; nouns which in such connection are treated as if they had all the power and functions of verbs proper. Thus an indirect question is attached to δήλωσις, i. 73, 3, μαρτυρίου καὶ δηλώ σεως (ἕνεκα) πρὸς οἵαν πόλιν — ὁ ἀγὼν καταστήσεται. In another place we have a complete object-clause construed with. ἐνθύμησις, i. 132, 5, κατὰ ἐνθύμησίν τινα ὅτι οὐδείς πω τῶν πρὸ ἑαυτοῦ ἀγγέλων πάλιν ἀφίκετο. At ii. 41, 3, we have ἀγανάκτησις with the full construction of ἀγανακτεῖν, and κατάμεμψις with that of καταμέμφεσθαι ; μόνη οὔτε τῷ πολέμῳ ἐπελθόντι ἀγανάκτησιν ἔχει ὑφ ̓ οἵων κακοπαθεῖ οὔτε τῷ ὑπηκόῳ κατάμεμψιν ὡς οὐχ ὑπ ̓ ἀξίων ἄρχεται. The genitivus privandi after στερεῖν is maintained after στέρησις, ii. 63, 1, περὶ ἀρχῆς στερήσεως. Twice do we meet the future infinitive after δόκησις, which is thus differentiated from the more concrete δόξα, ii. 84, 1, δόκησιν παρέχοντες αὐτίκα ἐμβαλεῖν ; iv. 55, 2, τῆς δοκήσεώς τι πράξειν. The dative of interest after καταδουλοῦν is made to go with καταδούλωσις, vi. 76, 3, περὶ . . . σφίσιν ἀλλὰ μὴ ἐκείνῳ καταδουλώσεως. The object-clause after ἀνακαλεῖν is left unchanged after ανάκλησις, vii. 71, 3, πρὸς ἀνάκλησιν θεῶν μὴ στερῆσαι σφᾶς τῆς σωτηρίας ἐτρέποντο.

4. We now reach that construction of nouns in -σis where

the latter are dependent upon a genitive subjective or possessive. The proportion of occurrence of this construction is much smaller than of that with the genitive objective. There are found about 42 cases or 10 per cent of the whole, whereas the cases of construction with the genitive objective constitute some 132 or 33 per cent of all cases. In the construction with the genitive subjective or possessive the noun naturally assumes more of a substantive character and becomes further removed from the signification of its verbal original than in the object-construction. Moreover there was probably some tacit feeling on the part of the writer which led him to avoid confusion with that class. In this employment, too, we may notice the freedom with which Thucydides uses double compounds ; thus in ii. 27, 2, εὐεργέται ἦσαν ὑπὸ . . . τῶν Εἰλώτων τὴν ἐπανάστασιν ; and in iv. 128, 4, ὀργιζόμενοι τῇ προαναχωρήσει τῶν Μακεδόνων. In one case, quoted above, we find the harsh combination of genitive subjective and objective, vii. 34, 6, διὰ τὴν τοῦ ἀνέμου ἄπωσιν αὐτῶν ἐς τὸ πέλαγος. A number of nouns in this construction assume decidedly concrete sense: thus, ἀπόστασις, ‘revolt; ποίησις, 'poetical works ;' μέλλησις, delay;” ὅπλισις, equipment; ὑπόσχεσις, ‘promise; ̓ ἀνάλωσις, ‘expenditure; ἔκπληξις, fright; ἀνάβασις, approach; in concrete topographical sense, διάβασις, ‘ford; ἀπόβασις, “landing-place. A few illustrations will suffice ; i. 10, 3, τῇ ̔Ομήρου ποιήσει ; vi. 31, 5, εἰ γάρ τις ἐλογίσατο τὴν — τῆς πόλεως ἀνάλωσιν; vi. 78, 2, οὐκ ἀνθρωπίνης δυνάμεως βούλησιν ἐλπίζει ; iv. 39, 3, καὶ τοῦ Κλέωνος καίπερ μανιώδης οὖσα ἡ ὑπόσχεσις ἀπέβη; i. 69, 4, τὴν αὔξησιν τῶν ἐχθρῶν καταλύοντες ; iii. 78, 4, ἐς ἡλίου δύσιν ; vii. 42, 3, ἀποχρήσασθαι τῇ παρούσῃ τοῦ στρατεύματος ἐκπλήξει (ἔκπληξις occurs 8 times in Thucydides, whereas the average occurrence of all other nouns in -os is twice each); vii. 42, 4, εἰ κρατήσειέ τις τῶν . . . Επιπολῶν τῆς ἀναβάσεως ; vii. 74, 2, τῶν ῥείθρων καὶ ποταμῶν διαβάσεις ἐφύλασσον.

5. The last construction to be considered is the periphrastic. Hitherto we have seen that these nouns serve as a means of compact statement, that they are a contrivance for