L

Such a work, though imperfect in many parts, could hardly fail to broaden the minds of the majority of English readers.

32. The Literature of the Period Adapted to the Needs of the People. The fourteenth century was a time of general awakening of thought, and there were many able and interesting writers. In this brief outline the aim will be to represent each period by the best it produced. Langland, Wycliffe, Chaucer, and Mandeville were the representative authors of the century. Gower was an able writer, but his works were in Latin. The chief object in presenting these men and their productions is to show by what means the English people and literature were advanced. It is safe to say that the greater part of the people of England could not read at the beginning of this century. One cause

of this ignorance was that they had nothing to read, or nothing that they cared to read. It would almost seem that the varied gifts and productions that have been noticed in this chapter were providential. People who were religiously inclined would delight in the works of Wycliffe and his fellow laborers. Those who were eager to learn about other people and other lands would embrace with avidity the strange accounts given by Mandeville. Those who sought for amusement, and who read for a pastime, would find their wants met by the tales of Chaucer. Thus it was that the tastes and desires of all classes of people were satisfied. Reading became more general, knowledge was diffused, the language was greatly improved, and intellectual activity was stimulated.

CHAPTER FIVE.

FROM WYCLIFFE AND CHAUCER TO MILTON.

33. Length of the Period. This period covers a little more than two hundred years, from the death of Chaucer in 1400 to that of Shakespeare in 1616. The representative writers of the fourteenth century were, as we have seen, Mandeville, the traveler; Chaucer, the poet; and Wycliffe, the defender of truth and translator of the Bible. Of these men, Chaucer was the greatest genius; Wycliffe, the most successful philanthropist. The one wrote to please the people and throw a genial light upon the monotony of their life; the other, to right their wrongs and enlighten their consciences.

For nearly two centuries after the writings of these men appeared, there was a dearth of anything that could claim pre-eminent merit. Yet there does not seem to have been, during this interim, a lack of activity in the English mind, or of fairly good writers. None of these writers, however, gave evidence of great genius, or produced anything which had a marked influence upon the thought and literature of the age. 'Toward the close of the sixteenth century, the flowers of poesy burst forth again with added beauty and unwonted profusion. The rapid appearing of literary productions of the highest class was like the blooming of the centuryplant, which has for a hundred years been gathering force for a supreme effort.

34. Men of the Period. The prominent actors during this period were many. But the work of a few may indicate sufficiently well for our present purpose the work of all. Among the representative men of this period were Caxton, the printer; Tyndale, the translator; Spenser, the allegorical poet; Shakespeare, the dramatist; Bacon, the philosopher; and Hooker, the theologian.

35. Language Improving in Euphony. The writings of Chaucer were much more euphonious than anything which had been hitherto produced. Just before his time, there had been a remarkable awakening of genius in Italy. The writings of Dante, Petrarch, and Boccacio had raised the Italian literature above that of any other language. The Italian people were showing their love of freedom by their efforts at independence, and their refined taste by their advances in architecture and other works of art. A similar awakening was felt to a greater or less extent throughout Europe. Chaucer was acquainted with the Italian poets, and their influence can be detected in his verse. The English poets that succeeded Chaucer were devoted admirers of his style, and imitated him; but they, also, felt the direct effects. of Italian refinement, and thus poetry steadily improved in ease and grace of expression.

36. The Printing-Press.-The art of printing was invented and carried into effect on the Continent about the middle of the fifteenth century. The first printing in England was done by William Caxton, who set up his press and printed his first book in 1474.

During the next sixteen or seventeen years, he printed sixty-four books, mostly in English, though some of them were translations. Many of the translations were made by Caxton himself. It is easy to see that the use of the printing-press would give a remarkable impetus to literary production, and that by this speedy method of multiplying copies of books, they would be much more widely disseminated among the people; that reading would become more general; and that this freer interchange of ideas would stimulate thought and action throughout the kingdom.

37. Translations.- Translations were also encouraged by the use of the printing-press. Printed copies of the Latin version of the Bible - the one known as the Vulgate were greatly multiplied, as many as eighty editions being turned out in less than forty years. There was then a very wide-spread effort to correct the errors found in that version, and to produce other versions that should be more true to the original text in which the Bible had been written. But all this did not give the Scriptures to the millions of people who could not read Latin. In order to meet this great need of the common people, men of piety and learning set to work to translate the Bible into their native languages.

38. Tyndale and Luther.-Among the most successful of these translators were Martin Luther and

William Tyndale. Their translations were printed about the same time,- Luther's in German, and Tyndale's in English. Luther is known the world over as

the Great Reformer; but Tyndale was as earnest a reformer as Luther or any other man could be.

At this time, Henry VIII reigned in England. Although one of the coarsest and most corrupt of monarchs, he made a great show of religious zeal, doing all he could to aid the priesthood in tyrannizing over the consciences of men. When it was known that Tyndale had begun to translate the Bible into English, he had to flee to Holland to save his life. There he continued his work; but his persecutors did not lose sight of him. At last he was treacherously betrayed into the hands of the officers who were searching for him. After being kept a long time in prison, he was condemned as a heretic, strangled, and burned at the stake.

39. Tyndale's Translation.- A new translation of the Bible had become necessary because the language had so changed since the time of Wycliffe as to make his version almost unintelligible. Tyndale was well qualified for the important work which he undertook. He was a man of talent and learning. His translations, as well as the other writings which he produced, were remarkably pure and simple in expression. His style was clear and energetic. All critics admire the excellence of his works. Our modern version of the New Testament is substantially Tyndale's translation with modernized spelling. Scarcely any other writer has done so much to establish pure diction and terse idioms; and when, after persecution had ceased, the Bible in these beautiful words came to be read all over England, it may be readily seen what an influence it would have upon the language of the people. The