622. Landing of the Romans in the Gulf of Issus. Defeat of Shahr-Barz. 623. Heraclius sailed to Lazica, and invaded Armenia. treated, and the Romans wintered in Albania. Chosroës re 625. Battle of the Sarus. Defeat of Shahr-barz. Chosroës allied himself with the Avars, and placed two armies in the field: one against Heraclius in Asia Minor, one destined for a direct attack on Constantinople. The latter attempt failed, Constantinople held out, although attacked also by hosts of Bulgarians and other barbarians from the west. Winter campaign of Heraclius. 627. Dec. 12. Battle of Nineveh. Defeat of the Persians. Flight of Chosroës. Heraclius advanced to Ctesiphon, but returned without assaulting the city. Mutiny of the Persian troops at Ctesiphon under two of the king's sons. Seizure and murder of Chosroës. He was succeeded by his son, 628-629 (?). Kobad II. (Siroës), who concluded peace with Rome on a basis of exchange of conquests and captives. Death of Kobad (of the plague ?). Usurpation of Shahr-barz, who before two months were over was murdered by his own troops. Reigns of Purandocht and Azermidocht, daughters of Chosroës II., followed by a period of anarchy, during which nine or ten nobles held the throne successively. 632-641 (651). Isdigerd, grandson of Chosroës II., last Sassanid king of Persia. His whole reign was a struggle against the growing power of the Caliphs Abu-Bekr and Omar (p. 182). 633. Expedition of Kaled (the "sword of God") to Hira. Defeat of the Persians. The whole region west of the Euphrates fell into the hands of the Arabs, who, however, suffered a temporary check by the loss of the "Battle of the Bridge." Their ravages were soon renewed, and extended throughout Mesopotamia. Great exertions of the Persians. Levy of an army of 120,000 men, which was defeated in the four days' 636. Battle of Cadesia, by Sa'ad Ibu Abi Wakas. Loss of the Durufsh-kawani, or 637. Invasion of Mesopotamia by Sa'ad. Capture of Ctesiphon. Defeat of the Persians in the battle of Jalula. 639. Invasion of Susiana and Persia proper by the Arabs. Capture of Hormuzan, a Persian general, who, being brought before Omar, asked for a cup of water, which he hesitated to taste until assured by the Caliph that he should not be harmed until he had drunk the water, whereupon he dashed the water on the ground before the astonished Caliph, who respected his promise and spared the Persian's life. The recall of Sa'ad emboldened Isdigerd to make a final effort. Collection of an army of 150,000 men, which was totally defeated in the 641. Battle of Nehavend ("victory of victories"). Fall of the Sassanid power. Persia henceforward governed by the caliphs. Isdigerd III. lived for ten years a fugitive, and was at last murdered (651). SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE TREATY OF VERDUN TO THE BEGINNING OF THE CRUSADES (843-1096). § 1. ITALY AND GERMANY. 843-875. Carolingians in Italy. After the death of two sons of Lothar I., Ludwig the German and Charles the Bald divided Lothar's inheritance by the treaty of Mersen on the Meuse (870). The German portion (Friesland, Lotharingia or Lothringen (Lorraine), so called after Lothar II.) was annexed to the kingdom of the East Franks, the Romance portion (Burgundy, Provence) to the kingdom of the West Franks. Boundary, the Meuse. After the death of Ludwig II., who was the eldest son of Lothar I. (875), Charles the Bald became Emperor († 877). 843-911. Carolingians in Germany. 843-876. Ludwig the German. Wars with the Slavs, with Charles the Bald, and especially with the Northmen, i. e. the Scandinavian sea warriors (Vikings), by whose ferocious energy the west of Europe was during this epoch harassed almost beyond belief. In 845 simultaneous attack by the Northmen upon all three of the Frankish kingdoms. Ludwig the German's son, 876-887. Charles the Fat, at first in conjunction with his brothers, Karlmann († 880) and Ludwig († 882). Successful resistance to the claims of Charles the Bald on the Rhine (battle of Andernach, 876) and Italy. Charles the Fat became Emperor in 881, and in 884 was elected king of the West Franks. He united once more under one sceptre the Monarchy of Charles the Great, with the exception of cisjurane Burgundy (Dauphiné, Provence, part of Languedoc), which became a separate kingdom under Boso. Charles the Fat was deposed by East and West Franks on account of his cowardice (siege of Paris by the Northmen), abdicated the throne at Tribur (887), and died almost immediately thereafter. The East Franks elected 887-899. Arnulf of Carinthia, grandson of Ludwig the German, illegitimate son of Karlmann. He defeated the Northmen upon the Dyle (at Löwen, 891), and in alliance with the Magyars, a nomadic Finnish tribe, which had gradually made its way from the Ural region towards Europe, and under guidance of Arpad had invaded Hungary, conquered Svatopluk II. (893), the founder of the kingdom of Moravia. Arnulf went twice to Italy, and was crowned Emperor (896). His son, 899-911. Ludwig the Child (six years old), was completely under the influence of Hatto, archbishop of Mainz. Terrible devastation of Germany by the Magyars. In 908 they traversed Bavaria, Franconia, and penetrated into Thuringia and Saxony. Lewis, defeated in the neighborhood of the Lech (910), was obliged to pay them tribute. Internecine feuds in Franconia: Adalbert of Babenberg against Rudolf, bishop of Würzburg, of the family of Conrad of Hesse. Victory of the Conradines. Adalbert executed in front of his castle. Weakness of the young king. The monarchy seemed about to break up into duchies: Saxony, Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, Lotharingia. After Ludwig's death the aged Otto the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, refused the crown, and secured the election of 911-918. Conrad I. of Franconia, by the nobles. Invasions of Danes, Slavs, and Magyars. Conrad was constantly at war with the West Franks and with his own subjects in a vain endeavor to obtain recognition of his sovereignty, especially from Henry, son of Otto the Illustrious and duke of Saxony, since 912. Lotharingia, with the exception of Alsace, became a part of the kingdom of the West Franks. 919-1024. Kings and Emperors of the Saxon house. In obedience to the wish of Conrad, expressed on his deathbed, and seconded by his brother, Eberhard, the Saxons and Franks elected at Fritzlar on the Eder 919-936. Henry I. the Fowler, founder of the German monarchy. Henry compelled Burkhard, duke of Alamannia (Swabia), and Arnulf, duke of Bavaria, to acknowledge his supremacy. 924. The Magyars (Hungarians) made a new inroad. Henry concluded a nine years' truce with them, and secured immunity for Saxony and Thuringia by payment of tribute. 925. Henry regained Lotharingia. Enlargement and better fortification of old fortresses (Merseburg) and construction of new ones (Quedlinburg, Goslar), which at a later period became cities. There was no wide-spread founding of cities by Henry himself, but in his reign the Saxons were gradually accustomed to city life and to cavalry service in war. Successful wars with the Wends, against whom a great mark was established along the middle Elbe, out of which at a later time (after the retirement of margrave (Markgraf) Gero, 963) were formed the Altmark or Northmark, Meissen, and the Ostmark (later Mark Lausitz), lying between the two. Victory at Lenzen (929). Wars with the Bohemians (recognition of the duty of feudal service), and with the Danes (Gorm the Old). Creation of a mark between the Eider and Sley (934), afterwards called Mark Schleswig. Henry refused to pay the promised tribute to the Magyars, who thereupon made a new inroad. 1 933. Victory of Henry over the Hungarians (on the Unstrut?). Heinrich died in 936. He was succeeded by his eldest son by Mathilda, 936-973. Otto I., the Great, who was elected by Saxons and Franks, and crowned at Aachen by the archbishop of Mainz. Homage of the princes of all the German races (Stimme). First appearance of the four court offices: duke of Lotharingia, Chamberlain; duke of Franconia, Steward; duke of Swabia, Cup-bearer; duke of Bavaria, Marshal. Countless swarms of Hungarians crossed Franconia (937), to invade Saxony. Defeated and pursued by Otto, they took a western direction, and ravaged France as far as the Loire. Otto defeated the rebellious duke of Bavaria, and drove him from his duchy, and subdued a revolt of Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and his own half-brother, Thankmar, who fell in the battle on the Eresburg (938). Henry, Otto's younger brother, rebelled, and was defeated by Otto along with his ally Giselbert, duke of Lotharingia, at Birthen, on the Rhine; the rebels, with whom Eberhard made common cause, called in the assistance of the French. Eberhard fell at Andernach, Giselbert was drowned on his flight, Henry fled to France (939). A murderous assault which Henry made upon his brother after he had received forgiveness failed; Henry threw himself upon the king's mercy, received forgiveness a second time (941), and became henceforward, with his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne (since 953), the king's chief reliance. Otto gave Lotharingia in 944 to Conrad the Red, the ancestor of the Franco-Salic royal house, who four years afterwards became his son-in-law. Otto made his brother Henry duke of Bavaria (946). Wars with the Wends, conducted by margrave Gero, with the Danes, under Otto himself, who advanced to Jutland (Mark Schleswig given to Hermann Billung), with Boleslav, duke of Bohemia (950), who became a vassal of the empire, and with the Hungarians, principally under the command of Henry. 948. Otto appointed his son Liudolf (by Editha) duke of Swabia. 946-950. Otto interfered in the French wars. He protected King Louis IV. against Hugo, count of France, both of whom were his brothers-in-law. 951. First expedition of Otto's to Italy against Berengar II. of Ivrea. Otto released and married Adelheid, the widow of King Lothar (of the house of Burgundy), and then nineteen years of age. Berengar submitted to Otto as his suzerain (952). 953. Lindolf, Otto's son, and Conrad, duke of Lotharingia, Otto's sonin-law, rebelled against the king. 954. New inroad of the Hungarians, who swept through Germany, ravaging as they went, to France; the rebels were in alliance 1 Probably not at Merseburg. See V. Giesebrecht, Gesch. der Deutschen Kaiserzeit, 1.4, 232. 955. with them. After a severe struggle and several fruitless attempts at reconciliation, Liudolf and Conrad submitted. They were forgiven, but deprived of their duchies. Archbishop Bruno received Lotharingia; duke Burkhard, Swabia. Bavaria, still in revolt, was subjugated by Otto and his brother Henry. New inroad of the Hungarians. Victory over the Hungarians on the Lechfeld Aug. 10. (Augsburg). Conrad fell in the battle. The Bavarian Ostmark, which was afterwards transformed into the duchy of Austria (Oesterreich), reestablished. Victorious expedition against the Wends, whom Otto defeated on the Rekenitz. 957. Liudolf died in arms against Berengar, who was in rebellion. 961. Second expedition of Otto's to Italy, Pope John XII. having implored his assistance against Berengar. Otto hastened to Rome, where he 962. Renewed the imperial office. Holy Roman EmFeb. pire of the German Nation. While Otto was engaged in the war with Berengar in Lombardy, John XII. endeavored to free himself from the impe963. rial protection and allied himself with Otto's foes. The emNov. peror advanced upon Rome and captured the city; John fled. The Romans were obliged to promise never to elect another Pope without the consent of the emperor. John was deposed by a synod in Rome, and Leo VIII. elected Pope. 964. A revolt of the Romans quickly suppressed. Jan. While Otto was again absent in northern Italy, where Berengar had, meantime, been obliged to surrender (he died as prisoner in Bamberg), Leo was expelled by the Romans, and John returned, but soon died in consequence of his dissipation. The Romans choose Benedict Pope. Otto captured Rome the second time, deposed Benedict, and reinstated Leo. 966-967. Third expedition to Italy. Otto's son, Otto II., already crowned as German king, received the imperial crown at Rome. Otto I. died at Memleben, near Merseburg. His sepulchre is in the cathedral of the bishopric of Magdeburg, which he had created. 973-983. Otto II., highly gifted, but passionate, husband of the Grecian princess Theophano. 976. Otto's cousin, Henry the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, instigated a conspiracy against the emperor, was conquered and deposed. Bavaria given to Otto of Swabia, son of Liudolf. Carinthia separated from Bavaria and made a duchy. Luitpold of Babenberg received the (Bavarian) Eastmark. 978. Otto surprised by Lothar, king of France, escaped with difficulty, reconquered Lotharingia, invaded France, and besieged Paris, but without success. 980-983. Wars in Italy. The emperor crossed the Alps, to Rome, 981. advanced into southern Italy, defeated the Greeks and Sara |