mark, which restored all its conquests. In return Sweden paid 600,000 rix dollars, gave up its freedom from custom duties in the Sound and abandoned the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, whom Denmark deprived of his share of Schleswig. 4. With Poland the truce of 1719 was continued.

1721. Aug. 30. Peace of Nystadt between Sweden and Russia.

1. Sweden ceded to Russia, Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland, part of Carelia, and a number of islands, among others Oesel, Dagö. 2. Russia restored Finland and paid two million rix dollars.

§ 3. GERMANY.

1705-1711. Joseph I., son of Leopold. He was succeeded by his brother

1711-1740. Charles VI.,

War of the Spanish Succession, p. 390.

1713-1740. Frederic William I., son of Frederic I., king of Prussia, by wise economy, a military severity, and the establishment of a formidable army, laid the foundation of the future power of Prussia. Maintenance of a standing army of 83,000 men, with a population of two and a half million inhabitants. Prince Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau ("the old Dessauan ").

1714-1718. War of Turks with Venice, and after 1716 with the emperor. Easy conquest of Morea by the Turks; the Venetians, however, kept Corfu. In Hungary the war was brilliantly conducted by prince Eugene. Victory of Peterwardein (1716). Victory, siege, and capture of Belgrade (1717).

1718. July 21. Peace of Passarowitz (Posharewatz).

1. Austria received the Bannat of Temesvar, a part of Servia, with Belgrade and Little Wallachia. 2. Venice retained her conquests, in Dalmatia, but ceded Morea to the Porte.

The seizure of Sardinia (1717) and Sicily (1718) by Spain, where Elizabeth of Parma, the second wife of Philip V., and her favorite the minister and cardinal Alberoni, were planning to regain the Spanish appanages lost by the Peace of Utrecht, brought about the 1718. Quadruple alliance for the maintenance of the Peace of Aug. 2. Utrecht, between France, England, the emperor, and (since

1719) the Republic of Holland.

After a short war and the fall of Alberoni, who went to Rome († 1752), the agreements of the quadruple alliance were executed in 1720. 1. Spain evacuated Sicily and Sardinia, and made a renunciation of the appanages forever, in return for which the emperor recognized the Spanish Bourbons. 2. Savoy was obliged to exchange Sicily (p. 393) for Sardinia. After this time the dukes of Savoy called themselves kings of Sardinia.

The emperor Charles VI. was without male offspring. His principal endeavor throughout his whole reign was to secure the various

lands which were united under the sceptre of Austria against division after his death. Hence he established an order of succession under the name of the

Pragmatic Sanction,

which decreed that: 1. The lands belonging to the Austrian empire should be indivisible; 2. That in case male heirs should fail, they should devolve upon Charles's daughters, the eldest of whom was Maria Theresa, and their heirs according to the law of primogeniture; 3. In case of the extinction of this line the daughters of Joseph I. and their descendants were to inherit.

To secure the assent of the various powers to this pragmatic sanction was the object of numerous diplomatic negotiations. A special alliance between Austria and Spain (1725), in regard to this measure, produced the alliance of Herrenhausen, in the same year, between England, France, and Prussia in opposition. Prussia soon withdrew from the alliance and joined Austria by the Treaty of Wusterhausen. The alliance between Austria and Spain was also of short duration. 1733-1735. War of the Polish Succession, after the death of Augustus II.

Cause: The majority of the Polish nobles, under the influence of France, elected Stanislaus Lesczinski, who had become the fatherin-law of Louis X V., king, a second time. Russia and Austria induced a minority to choose Augustus III., elector of Saxony (son of Augustus II.), and supported the election by the presence of troops in Poland. France, Spain, and Sardinia took up arms for Stanislaus. The seat of war was at first in Italy, where Milan, Naples, and Sicily were conquered, and the Austrians lost everything except Milan, and afterwards on the upper Rhine, where the old prince Eugene fought unsuccessfully, and Francis Stephen, duke of Lorraine, the future husband of Maria Theresa, alone upheld the honor of the imperial arms. Lorraine occupied by the French. Kehl captured. Preliminaries of peace (1735), and, after long negotiations,

1738. Nov. 18. Peace of Vienna.

1. Stanislaus Lesczinski made a renunciation of the Polish throne, receiving as compensation the duchies of Lorraine and Bar, which at his death should devolve upon France. Stanislaus died 1766. 2. The duke of Lorraine, Francis Stephen, received an indemnification in Tuscany, whose ducal throne had become vacant by the extinction of the family of Medici, 1737 (p. 417). 3. Austria ceded Naples and Sicily, the island of Elba and the Stati degli Presidi to Spain as a secundogeniture for Don Carlos, so that these lands could never be united with the crown of Spain, receiving in exchange Parma and Piacenza, which Don Carlos had inherited in 1731 upon the death of the last Farnese, his great-uncle. 4. France guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction.

1736-1739. Unsuccessful war with the Turks in alliance with Russia (p. 411). By the Peace of Belgrade Orsowa, Belgrade, Servia, and Little Wallachia were restored to the Turks. May. Death of Frederic William I. of Prussia.

HOUSE OF LORRAINE AND TUSCANY.

Francis I., grand duke of Tuscany 1737, emperor 1745-1765, m. Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI. the last Hapsburg.

Ferdinand, m. the heiress of Modena.

1740-1786. Frederic II. the Great (twenty-eight years old).

Born in 1712, received a French education under Madame de Rocoulles and Duhan de Jandun; musical (Quanz). After the frustration of the projected marriage with a daughter of George II. of England, estrangement between the king and the crown prince. Frederic attempted flight, was captured, and sentenced to Küstrin as a deserter (execution of Katte) where he found employment in the Chamber of War and of Domain. Marriage with a princess of Brunswick-Bevern (1733). Correspondence with Voltaire. Residence at Rheinsberg and Ruppin until 1740. From his accession to his death he was himself the ruler.

1740, Oct. With the death of Charles VI. the male line of the Hapsburgs was extinct.1

1740-1780. Maria Theresa,

queen of Bohemia and Hungary, archduchess of Austria, etc., married Francis Stephen of the house of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany (co-regent).

1740-1748. War of the Austrian Succession.

Cause: The following claimants for the Austrian inheritance appeared: 1. Charles Albert, elector of Bavaria, who had never recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, a descendant of Anna, the eldest daughter of Ferdinand I. He based his claim upon the marriage contract of Anna, and will of Ferdinand I., whereby the Austrian inheritance was (he claimed) secured to the descendants of Anna, in case the male descendants of her brother should become extinct. (The original will, however, read, in case the legitimate descendants of her brother became extinct.) 2. Philip V., king of Spain, relying on a treaty between Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand on occasion of the cession of the German lands, and upon a reservation made by Philip III. in his renunciation of the German lands. 3. Augustus III. of Saxony, the husband of the eldest daughter of Joseph I.

The claims advanced by Frederic II. to a part of Silesia, and his desire to annex the whole of Silesia to his kingdom, the rejection of the offer which he made at Vienna to take the field in favor of Austria if his claims were recognized, brought about, before the commencement of hostilities by the other claimants, the

1740-1742. First Silesian War.2

Legal claims of Prussia to a portion of Silesia : 1. The principality of Jägerndorf was purchased in 1524 by a younger branch of the electoral line of Hohenzollern, and the future acquisition of Ratibor and

1 See the genealogical table, p 399.

2 A supplement to the Prussian view of the relations of Frederic and the courts of Vienna and Paris will be found in the papers by the Duc de Broglie in the Revue des Deux Mondes, published separately as Frederic II. and Maria Theresa.

8 Eichhorn, Deutsche Staats-und Rechtsgeschichte, iv. § 583.

Oppeln secured at the same time, by an hereditary alliance. In 1623 duke John George was placed under the ban by the emperor Ferdinand II. (p. 309), as an adherent of Frederic V., the elector palatine, and in spite of the Peace of Westphalia (p. 316, B.) neither he nor his heirs had been reinstated. 2. The elector Joachim II. had made an hereditary alliance in 1537 with the duke of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau, which Ferdinand I. had forbidden as king of Bohemia and feudal superior of the duke. After the extinction of the ducal house (1675) Austria took possession of the inheritance. In 1686 Frederic William, the Great Elector, renounced the Silesian duchies, in return for the cession of the circle of Schwiebus. The latter, however, was secured to Austria by a secret agreement with the prince elector, and was restored by him, as elector Frederic III., in 1696.

1740. Occupation of Silesia by Frederic's troops. Capture of Glo

gau.

1741, April 10. Victory of Mollwitz (Schwerin).

1741.

Secret alliance of Nymphenburg1 against Austria concluded May. by France, Bavaria, and Spain, afterwards joined by Saxony, and lastly by Prussia.

The allied French (Belle-Isle) and Bavarian army invaded Austria and Bohemia. Prague taken in alliance with the Saxons. Charles Albert caused himself to be proclaimed archduke in Linz, while Frederic II. received homage in Silesia. Charles Albert was elected emperor in Frankfort as

1742-1745. Charles VII.

Meantime Maria Theresa had gone to Hungary. Diet at Presburg; enthusiasm of the Hungarian nobility; 2 two armies raised; alliance concluded with England. An Austrian army conquered Bavaria where Maria Theresa received the homage of Munich; a second besieged the French in Prague.

1742. The victory of Frederic at Czaslau and Chotusitz, and Maria May 17. Theresa's desire to rid herself of a dangerous enemy led to

the separate 1742, June and July.

Peace of Breslau and Berlin between Aus

tria and Prussia: 1. Frederic withdrew from the alliance against Maria Theresa. 2. Austria ceded to Prussia upper and lower Silesia and the county of Glatz, retaining only the principality of Teschen and the southwestern part of the principalities of Neisse, Troppau, and Jägerndorf, the Oppa forming the boundary. 3. Prussia assumed the debt upon Silesia held by English and Dutch creditors, to the amount of 1,700,000 rix dollars.

Austria prosecuted the war against the allies with success, driving

1 J. G. Droysen, Abhandlungen (zur neueren Geschichte) 1876, claimed that the document which was published as the Traité de Nymphenbourg was a forgery; Schlosser and L. v. Ranke consider it genuine. Be that as it may it is certain that new engagements (according to Flassan, Hist. de la dipl., a formal Traité d'alliance offensive) were entered into at Nymphenburg by Bavaria and France, and also that a treaty was concluded between France and Spain.

2 The truth of the well-known tale of the exclamation Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria Theresa is, however, disputed, on good grounds.