and prince Henry invaded Bohemia (July, 1778). Impossibility of forcing Joseph from his strong position along the upper Elbe, or of getting around it. The armies maintained their positions of observation so long that want began to make itself felt. In the autumn prince Henry retired to Saxony, Frederic to Silesia. Unimportant skirmishes along the frontier. A personal correspondence between Maria Theresa and Frederic, commenced by the former, led in the following spring, with the help of Russian and French mediation, to a truce and a congress, and soon after to the

1779, May. Peace of Teschen.

1. The treaty of Vienna with Charles Theodore was abrogated. Austria retained only the district of the Inn, in Bavaria, i. e. the part of lower Bavaria between the Inn, Salza, and Danube. 2. Austria agreed to the future union of the margravates of Ansbach and Baireuth, with the Prussian monarchy. 3. Saxony obtained some hitherto disputed rights of sovereignty and nine million rix dollars; Mecklenburg the privilegium de non appellando.

1780-1790. Joseph II. Period of his reign alone and of his attempts at reform.1

The peaceable and prudent government of Maria Theresa († 1780), with its carefully matured scheme of reform, was succeeded by the essentially revolutionary reign of Joseph II., whereby the ancient forms were shaken to their foundations, and their substance, reluctant and stiff from lack of change, forcibly subjected to experiments made in sympathy with the enlightenment of the century. Joseph II. is the best representative of the contradictions of the eighteenth century, of its philanthropy and its devotion to right, and again of its severity and lack of consideration, where there was question of executing some favorite theory. Filled with dislike of the clergy and the nobility, and entertaining the ideal of a strong, centralized, united state, Joseph pursued his reforms with the purpose of breaking the power of the privileged classes mentioned above, of destroying all provincial independence, and of establishing unity in the administration (centralization). Despite of all his failures, despite of the fact that, with the exception of the abolition of serfdom and the edict of tolerance, not one of his reforms outlived him, Joseph's reign regenerated the Austrian monarchy, lending it mobility and vitality.

Edict of tolerance (1781). Within eight years 700 monasteries were closed and 36,000 members of orders released. There still remained, however, 1,324 monasteries with 27,000 monks and nuns. For those which remained a new organization was prescribed. The connection of the ecclesiastical order with Rome was weakened, schools were established with the property of the churches, innovations in the form of worship were introduced, nor did the interior organization of the church escape alteration. Futile journey of Pope Pius VI. to Vienna (1782) undertaken to prevent these changes. Reform of the jurisdiction. The feudal burdens were reduced to fixed norms, and attempts were made to completely abolish personal servitude among the peasants.

1 Häusser, Deutsche Geschichte vom Tode Friedrichs d. Grossen.

Disputes between Joseph and the Dutch; the emperor arbitrarily annulled the barrier treaties (p. 393) (1781). He demanded that the Schelde, which had been closed by the Treaty of Westphalia to the Spanish Netherlands, in favor of the Dutch, should be opened. Finally, after four years of quarreling, French mediation brought about the Peace of Versailles (1785). Joseph withdrew his demands in consideration of ten million florins.

Joseph attempted to improve the legal system of the empire. His encroachments in the empire. Violent proceedings in the case of the bishop of Passau (1783).

The endeavors of Frederic the Great to conclude a union of German princes (1783), which should resist the encroachments of the emperor, and to strengthen Prussia in her political isolation by a "combination within the empire," were at first but coldly supported by his own ministers and the German princes. Frederic's plan was not taken into favor until news was received of

1785. Joseph II.'s plan of an exchange of territory,

according to which Charles Theodore was to cede the whole of Bavaria to Austria, and accept in exchange the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), excepting Luxemburg and Namur, as the kingdom of Burgundy. France maintained an attitude of indifference. Russia supported the project and endeavored by persuasion and threats to induce the heir of Bavaria, the count palatine of Zweibrücken (Deuxponts) to consent to the scheme. The latter sought help from Frederic the Great, who, a year before his death († 1786, Aug. 17), succeeded in forming the

1785, July. League of the German Princes

between Prussia, the electorate of Saxony, and Hanover, which was afterward joined by Brunswick, Mainz, Hesse-Cassel, Baden, Mecklenburg, Anhalt, and the Thuringian lands.

Opposition to Joseph's reforms in the Austrian Netherlands and in Hungary. The removal of the crown of Hungary to Vienna produced so great a disturbance that the emperor yielded and permitted its return. The revocation of the constitution of Brabant caused a revolt in the Belgian provinces (1789). War with the Turks (p. 414). Death of Joseph II. (1790).

1790-1792. Leopold II., emperor.

Joseph's brother and successor. He suppressed the Belgian insurrection, but restored the old constitution and the old privileges. A conference at Reichenbach prevented a war with Prussia, which (Jan. 31, 1790) had concluded a treaty with the Turks, in order to procure more favorable conditions for the latter from Austria and Russia (p. 414).

§ 4. DENMARK, SWEDEN, RUSSIA, POLAND.

Denmark (and Norway).

Since the close of the northern war, Denmark held complete possession of Schleswig and enjoyed under Frederic IV., Christian VI., Frederic V., Christian VII. (count Bernstorff, minister), a long interval of peace at home and abroad. Under the weak Christian VII. revolutionary attempts at reform after the manner of Joseph II. by the German Struensee (born in Halle, physician in Altona, traveling companion of the king, instructor of the crown prince, favorite of the queen, Caroline Matilda, first minister, count, who was overthrown in 1772 by a conspiracy (queen dowager Juliana Maria) and beheaded along with his friend Brandt. The disputes with the line of Holstein-Gottorp were brought to an end in 1773 by the cession of Oldenburg to the younger line in exchange for their share of Holstein, which was in consequence entirely incorporated with the Danish monarchy.

Sweden.

Until 1751 Sweden was under the rule of Frederic of Hesse-Cassel (p. 397). Decline of the royal power in the midst of the dissensions of two parties of the nobility, Hüte, "hats;" (French) and Mutzen caps;" (Russian). Unsuccessful war with Russia (1741-1743), ended by the disgraceful

66

1743. Peace of Åbo.

2.

1. The Cymen made the boundary between Sweden and Russia, whereby the position of St. Petersburg was made more secure. The succession to the crown of Sweden was guaranteed to Adolf Frederic of Holstein-Gottorp.

1751-1818. The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden.

Under Adolf Frederic (1751-1771) the royal power underwent such reductions at the hands of the royal council that Sweden was rather an aristocracy than a monarchy. Inglorious participation in the Seven Years' War. Adolf Frederic's son, Gustavus III. (17711792), crushed the power of the royal council of nobles by a bloodless revolution (1772), and reduced it in the new constitution from a co-regent to a simple council; the estates, however, retained the right of veto against an offensive war. 1788-1790. War with Russia. Drawn battle at the island of Hogland (1788). Gustavus invaded Russian Finland, where the officers of his army refused him further obedience. He found support among the people (Stockholm and Dalecarlia). The estates granted him (against the will of the nobles) the right to declare even an offensive war. In spite of brilliant deeds of arms Gustavus concluded the war by a peace (at Werele) which was without advantage to Sweden.

1792, March. Gustavus III. murdered by James of Ankarström.

The son of Peter the Great (p. 374 and 394), Alexis, who favored the Russian reaction, was condemned to execution by his father, and died in prison (?) 1718. Peter was succeeded, in consequence of a law which he had issued in 1722 (afterwards repealed by Paul I.) which allowed the reigning sovereign to appoint his own successor, by his wife

1725-1727.

Catharine I., who was governed by prince Menschikoff, the favorite of Peter I., who had risen from the lowest rank to be the first minister of state. After the sudden death of the empress there followed, under her will,

1727-1730. Peter II., twelve years old, grandson of Peter I. He was for four months under the influence of Menschikoff, who at the end of that time was overthrown by the family of Dolgoruky and sent to Siberia, where he died two years later. Upon Peter II.'s early death,

1730-1740. Anna Ivanovna, younger daughter of the elder

brother of Peter the Great, was proclaimed empress. She was ruled by Münnich, Ostermann, and her favorite Biron (properly Bühren). The latter soon obtained complete control, and took unbridled vengeance on his enemies, particularly the Dolgoruky. In 1737 he was appointed duke of Curland, at the desire of the empress, by Augustus III., king of Poland (1733-1763). Russia's influence in Poland established by the war of the Polish succession (p. 398). In the war against the Turks, brilliantly conducted, in combination with Austria (p. 398), by the general Münnich (17361739), Azoff was the only acquisition. The empress Anna was succeeded by her grand-nephew, the minor

1740-1741. Ivan IV. (or VI.), whose mother, Anna of Brunswick, conducted the government for a short time after Münnich had accomplished the fall of Biron, who was sent to Siberia. A military revolution placed upon the throne 1741-1762. Elizabeth, the youngest daughter of Peter the Great. Ivan was imprisoned, the leaders of the preceding government, including Münnich, were sent to Siberia, Biron returned. Capricious rule of women and favorites; Lestocq, a friend of Prussia, to whom the empress was chiefly indebted for her throne, was overthrown by Bestushef, friendly to Austria, and sent to Siberia. War with Sweden, see p. 410. Participation of Russia in the Seven Years' War, p. 404. According to Elizabeth's direction she was succeeded by the son of her sister, Peter, duke of Holstein-Gottorp. 1762-X. House of Holstein-Gottorp in Russia. 1762. Peter III., after a six months' reign, which he began with the imprudent introduction of reforms, was deposed (July 9) and imprisoned by his wife (princess of Anhalt-Zerbst), the energetic and immoral

1762-1796. Catharine II.

The two brothers Orloff caused the emperor to be strangled, whether with the knowledge of Catharine or not, cannot be stated. The fact that she overwhelmed the murderers with rewards tells against the empress.

Catharine asked and received from Augustus III., king of Poland, the restoration of Curland, for Biron, who administered the duchy under Russian influence, until 1772, and bequeathed it to his son.

After the death of Augustus III. (1763), Catharine, in alliance with Frederic II., procured the election of her protégé 1764-1795. Stanislaus Poniatowski († 1797), as king of Poland.

At the request of Russia and Prussia the dissenters, adherents of the Greek church, and protestants received equal rights with catholics. In opposition to this change, formation of the Confederacy of Bar (1768), which made an unsuccessful attempt to abduct the king. In the civil war that followed the king was successfully supported by a Russian army against the confederacy. The Turks, allies of the confederacy, declared war upon Russia. Russia's success in this war aroused the envy of Prussia and Austria, which led to an attempt to secure an equal aggrandizement of the three powers by the

1772. First division of Poland.

1. Russia received the region between the Duna, Dnieper, and Drutsch, i. e. the eastern part of Lithuania. 2. Austria: East Gallicia and Lodomeria. 3. Prussia: Polish Prussia (West Prussia, with the exception of Danzig, Thorn, and Ermeland), which the Teutonic order had ceded to Poland in 1466 (p. 277), and the Netze district.

The assent of the Polish nation to this high-handed proceeding was extorted by force. Exertions of the powers who had shared in the