Venaissin, parts of Savoy, of the German empire, and of Belgium. 2. France recognized the independence of the States of the Netherlands, according to their future enlargement, as well as of all German and Italian states and of Switzerland. 3. England restored the French colonies excepting Tobago, Sta. Lucia, and Isle de France. England retained Malta. 4. The allies remitted all sums which they might have claimed for supplies, advances, etc. 5. France promised England to abolish the slave trade. After the peace of Paris Pius VII. returned to Rome, the king of Sardinia, Victor Emmanuel, to Turin, the king of Spain, Ferdinand VII., to Madrid. In Spain the rejection of the ultra-liberal constitution proposed by the cortes of 1812, was followed by the immediate outbreak of a cruel contest of arbitrary power against the liberal party. Visit of Alexander and Frederic William III. in London (June 7-22, 1814), accompanied by their victorious general (Blücher); enthusiastic reception by the English nation. For the purpose of restoring and regulating the European relations, and particularly those of Germany, after the overthrow of the military supremacy of the French empire, the 1814, Sept.-1815, June. Congress of Vienna was assembled. The emperors of Austria and Russia, the kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Würtemberg, and a great number of German princes were present in person. Chief negotiators: Austria, Metternich; Prussia, Hardenberg and W. v. Humboldt; Russia, Nesselrode and Rasumoffsky; Great Britain, Wellington and Castlereagh; France, Talleyrand and Dalberg. (Baron vom Stein, prince of Ligne.) The five powers, which had concluded the peace of Paris, and which, to avoid quarrels about rank, were henceforward named in the order of the French alphabet, Autriche, France, Grande-Bretagne, Prusse, Russie, formed a closer union at the congress of Vienna (hence afterwards called the Pentarchy of the Great Powers). For special cases this union was joined by Spain, Portugal, Sweden. These eight powers, after long negotiations and after the disputes over the Saxon and the Polish questions had for a moment threatened to lead to war (Russia and Prussia against Austria, France, and England), and after Napoleon's return from Elba (p. 483), signed the Act of the Congress of Vienna. Principal articles : 1. Restoration of the Austrian and Prussian monarchies: a. Austria received besides her ancient domain of Milan, Venice, which had been conferred upon her by the treaty of Campo Formio (these were now called the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom), the Illyrian provinces (the kingdoms of Illyria and Dalmatia), Salzburg, Tyrol (from Bavaria), and Gallizia. b. Prussia received a part of the grand duchy of Warsaw (Posen) with Danzig; Swedish hither Pommerania with Rügen in return for Lauenburg, which was ceded to Denmark; its old possessions in Westphalia, somewhat enlarged, as well as Neu châtel and the grand duchy of the lower Rhine, and the greater part of Saxony as an indemnification for the loss of some former possessions, as Ansbach and Baireuth ceded to Bavaria, East Friesland to Hanover, the Polish possessions to Russia. 2. Formation of a kingdom of the Netherlands, comprising the former republic of Holland and Austrian Belgium, under the former hereditary statthalter as King William I. 3. Creation of a German confederacy to take the place of the old empire, comprising 39 (at its dissolution in 1866 only 34) sovereign states, including the four free cities; all other princes who were formerly sovereign were mediatized. Act of confederation signed June 8, 1815, supplemented by the final act of Vienna, May 15, 1820. 4. Russia received the greater part of the grand duchy of Warsaw as the kingdom of Poland. Cracow became a free state under the protection of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 5. England retained Malta, Heligoland, a portion of the French and Dutch colonies, and the protectorate over the Republic of the Seven Ionian Islands (the latter by treaty of 1815, Nov. 5, which was made an integral part of the peace of Vienna. See p. 482. These islands were given to Greece by the treaties of Nov. 14, 1863-Nov. 29, 1861. See p. 505). 6. Sweden retained Norway, which had been ceded to her at the peace of Kiel (p. 479), with a constitution of its own; Denmark was indemnified with Lauenburg. 7. The nineteen cantons of Switzerland were increased to twentytwo by the accession of Geneva, Wallis, and Neuchâtel (at once canton and a principality). 8. Restoration of the old dynasties in Spain, in Sardinia, which received Genoa, in Tuscany, Modena, the Papal States. The Bourbons were not reinstated in Naples until 1815, as Murat had secured possession of that state for the present by his desertion of Napoleon. News of the discontent in France with the government of the Bourbons, and of the discord in the bosom of the congress of Vienna, as well as the invitations of his adherents, encouraged the deposed emperor to return to France. 1815. Landing of Napoleon at Cannes March 1. with 1,500 men. Forced march upon Paris. All troops sent against him, even Ney with his corps, went over to him. March 13. Proclamation of the ban against Napoleon by the monarchs of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, France, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden. King Louis XVIII. fled to Ghent. March 20. Napoleon entered Paris. The Hundred Days, March 20 to June 29, 1815. Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia, concluded a new March 25. Alliance at Vienna against Napoleon, whereby each power engaged to furnish an army of 180,000 men. All Eu ropean nations were invited to join the alliance. One after another all the states joined it except Sweden, which was occupied in crushing with military power the resistance of Norway to the personal union. The sum of the contingents furnished against Napoleon amounted to over a million men. May. Napoleon found himself obliged to make some apparent concessions to the liberal party in France. Champ de Mai: Acte additionel. In Belgium concentration of a Prussian army under Blücher and an English-German under Wellington, against Napoleon. Murat, who had declared for Napoleon, defeated by the Austrians at Tolentino (May 3). Naples captured May 22. Murat fled to France. Reinstallation of Ferdinand as king of Naples. June 14. Napoleon crossed the boundary of Belgium. Engagement at Charleroi ; the advance guard of the Prussians under Ziethen forced back. June 15, Napoleon defeated Blücher in the June 16. Battle of Ligny, after a brave resistance (Blücher in personal danger), and drove him back. Blücher marched upon Wavre. Ney defeated by the prince of Orange in the June 16. Battle of Quatre-Bras. The duke of Brunswick fell. Meantime concentration of the army of Wellington, consisting of British, Hanoverians, Dutch, and troops from Brunswick and Nassau. Upon this force Napoleon hurled himself with superior numbers. 1815, June 18. Battle of Waterloo and Belle Alliance, called by Napoleon the battle of Mont St. Jean. Napoleon thought he had insured the prevention of the juncture of the Prussians under Blücher with the English under Wellington, by directing Grouchy to engage the former. By afternoon Wellington's army, though still unyielding, had suffered so heavily that the day was only saved by the arrival of the Prussians under Blücher. Complete defeat of the French, whose army, pursued by Gneisenau, was entirely scattered. Meanwhile Grouchy, on whose help Napoleon had relied, was engaged at Wavre against Thieleman, whose corps he by some unexplained error took for the whole Prussian army.1 June 22. Abdication of Napoleon in favor of his son. July 7. Second capture of Paris. Entrance of Blücher and Wellington. Return of Louis XVIII. Arrival of the two emperors, and of the king of Prussia. Meantime Napoleon fled to Rochefort, where, after futile attempts to escape to America, he surrendered himself to the British admiral Hotham on the ship-of-the-line Bellerophon, who conveyed him to England. Thence, by a unanimous resolve of the allies, he was transported as prisoner of war to St. Helena, where he arrived in October († May 5, 1821). 1 Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de l'Empire, xx.; Ropes, Who Lost Waterloo ! Atlantic Monthly, June, 1881. Sept. 26. Foundation of the Holy Alliance upon the suggestion of Alexander, comprising at first Russia, Austria, Prussia, theoretically an intimate union on a basis of morality and religion, but practically soon degenerating into an alliance for the protection of absolute monarchy. Ney made his escape, but was captured, condemned, and executed on Dec. 7, 1815. Murat made a reckless attempt to recover his throne by landing in Calabria; he was captured, court-martialed, and shot Oct. 13, 1815. Nov. 20. Second Peace of Paris. 1. France surrendered the four fortresses Philippeville, Marienburg (also Bouillon to the kingdom of the Netherlands), Saarlouis (and Saarbrucken to Prussia), Landau, which became a fortress of the German confederation, with the surrounding region as far as the Lauter (to Bavaria). France ceded to Sardinia that part of Savoy which she had retained in the first peace of Paris. She was therefore brought back, generally speaking, to the boundaries of 1790, instead of to those of 1792, which she had retained in the first peace. 2. Demolition of Hüningens, a fortress opposite Basle. 3. Seventeen fortresses on the north and east borders of France were to be garrisoned for five years at the utmost, by troops of the allies at the expense of France. 4. France paid 700 million francs for the expenses of war. Besides this the art treasures which the French had carried away from various cities, partly by treaties, and which had been left in Paris under the first peace, were now reclaimed. The desire of German patriots that at least a portion of the ancient appanages of the old empire, Lorraine, Alsace, and Strasburg, should be taken from France, which would thus be deprived of a point of attack against Germany, was not gratified. FOURTH PERIOD. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA TO THE PRESENT DAY. 1815-x. § 1. INVENTIONS. The universal adoption and application of four inventions which had been made at an earlier period, and in comparison with whose influence upon the transformation of the world that of all political events, wars, treaties, revolutions, almost disappear, lends the modern world its peculiar character. [A century of material, intellectual, social development of the people follows a century of diplomatic intrigue and misgovernment. (Compare with these inventions those of the fifteenth century, p. 279.)] 1. The first attempts to utilize steam for the production of motion were made in the seventeenth century. Nothing, however, is cer tainly known about either the exact date or place of the invention, or the person of the true discoverer. The French ascribe the invention to Denis Papin, of Blois (1647-1714), the English to the Marquis of Worcester (1663) and Captain Savery (1698). At all events the first steam engine which deserves the name seems to have been set up in England, and to have been used in mining. This was done by Newcomen, in Devonshire (1705). The man who did the most to improve the steam engine, and whose inventions first made it possible to use these machines in the most various industries, was James Watt (1736-1819), of Greenock, in Scotland. 2. The priority of the idea of applying steam to navigation is disputed between the French, English, and Americans. The French ascribe the invention to the above-named Papin. In 1774 the count of Auxiron, and in 1775 Périer, are said to have sailed the first little steamboat upon the Seine. The experiment was repeated by the marquis of Jouffroy in 1775 on the Doubs, and in 1780 on the Saône at Lyons with a vessel of larger dimensions. In England the invention is ascribed to the marquis of Worcester; it would seem, however, that the first steamboat in Great Britain was built in 1786 by Symington at Edinburgh. To America, however, where experiments with small steamboats had been made upon the Delaware in 1783, 1785, belongs the honor of establishing the first regular steamboat service. This was instituted in 1807 by Fulton, who had already made an experiment with a steamship on the Seine in the presence of the first consul, Napoleon, and had in vain offered to apply steam to the French ships of war (1803). 3. Railroads were without doubt an English invention. In the second half of the seventeenth century wooden railroads were used in the mines at Newcastle on the Tyne, in imitation, it is claimed, of a similar arrangement in the Harz mines. In 1716 the rails were covered with sheet iron, and in 1767 the wood was replaced by cast iron. For a long time the roads were used only for securing an easier draught for horses. The first application of steam to railroads was made in 1806 by the engineer Trevithick. Gradual improvement in the mechanical construction of the engines. George Stephenson in 1814 invented the locomotive and in 1829 an improved locomotive, which in 1830 ran upon the first great railroad for passenger traffic between Liverpool and Manchester. The first road of this kind was constructed in 1825 between Stockton and Darlington. First railroad in Germany, Fürth to Nuremberg (1835), at first a horse railroad; the first larger line worked by locomotives was constructed between Leipsic and Dresden (1837). First railroad in the United States, 1827, at Quincy, Mass.; cars drawn by horses. First railroad traversed by a locomotive, the Hudson and Mohawk road, 1832. After England and North America were covered with an iron net-work, Germany, and much later France, began the construction of railroads upon a large scale. [Financial disturbances caused (especially in England) by the withdrawal of capital from other industries to be sunk in construction of railroads, and by stock speculation.] 4. The first electric telegraph was invented in 1809 by Sömmering, |