armed interference with Turkey, and being herself unprepared for war and hindered by the winter season, diplomatic negotiations were prolonged. Finally a conference of ambassadors of all the great powers was arranged to meet in Constantinople.

Dec. 24. Meeting of the conference. Promulgation of a constitution for the whole Ottoman empire, which gave the Christians equal rights with Muhammedans and which the Porte hoped would make unnecessary any special provisions in favor of his Christian subjects, to be guaranteed by the powers.

1877. The guarantees which were still demanded by the conference in spite of the Turkish constitution, but which had been gradually reduced in extent, were rejected by the Porte, after consultation with an imperial council summoned for the occasion. The ambassadors of all the great powers left Constantinople.

Peace concluded between the Porte and Servia on the basis of the status quo ante bellum. Montenegro continued in arms.

After further negotiations with the European powers, which had no result, and after completion of its preparations, the Russian government concluded to take up arms alone against Turkey, making a formal declaration that it had no conquests in view.

1877, April-1878, March. Turco-Russian War.

A. Seat of war in Europe: A Russian army under the grand duke Nicholas crossed the Pruth, an understanding with Roumelia having been previously reached, and advanced to the Danube, which was first crossed June 22 by a corps under Zimmermann, which occupied the Dobrudsha; the main army, which Alexander II. had meanwhile joined, forced the

1877. Passage of the Danube at Shistova.

June 27. A flying corps under Gurko crossed the Balkan by an unguarded pass, and drove the Turkish garrison from the important Shipka Pass, by an attack from the south (July 17-19), while one division of the main army, under the crown prince, fronted east and by hard fighting, prolonged for months about the rivers Jantra and Lom, held in check the Turkish army under Abdul Kerim (afterwards under Mehemed Ali, and finally under Suleiman).

The other division of the Russian army captured Nicopolis (July 15), but suffered repeated repulses with heavy loss before Plevna (S. W. from Nicopolis), where Osman Pasha had collected Turkish troops and thrown up strong fortifications (July 20 and 30), and was forced to wait for reinforcements.

Meantime Suleiman Pasha attempted in vain to storm the Shipka Pass from the south with superior numbers (Aug. 23, Sept. 17). He was now appointed commander of the Turkish army in the east on the Lom, where his troops had been sadly missed.

Arrival of Roumanian troops and Russian reinforcements before Plevna. After the failure of an attempted storm (Sept. 7-12), a regular siege was undertaken (gen. Totleben), and

Dec. 10. Plevna captured. Osman Pasha, with 44,000 men, obliged to surrender after a futile attempt to break through the RusReturn of the Roumanians to their country, of Alexander

sian lines.

II. to St. Petersburg. Servia (Dec. 14) declared war upon the Porte

anew.

Dec.-Jan. A Russian division under Gurko crossed the western Balkans and occupied Sophia; a second under Radetzki and Skobeleff poured through the Shipka Pass. Both divisions, in conjunction with the portions of the eastern army which had also crossed the Balkans, advanced by way of Philippopolis (victory of Gurko over remnants of the Turkish army, Jan. 16 and 17, 1878) and Adrianople (occupied Jan. 20), close upon Constantinople.

B. Seat of war in Asia (Russian commander-in-chief grand prince Michael). While the operations of a Russian division against Batoum, as well as an expedition of the Turkish fleet to the Caucasian coasts, were without result, the main column of the Russian army (Loris-Melikoff), forced its way to Kars, which it invested (May, 1877). Two other divisions occupied Ardaghan and Bajasid. The reverses suffered from Mukhtar Pasha, who advanced to the relief of Kars from Erzeroum (June), compelled the Russians to retreat across the frontier, abandoning almost all their conquests.

In October the Russians advanced again, and after the 1877. Storm of Kars

Nov. 8. pushed on victoriously to Erzeroum.

The success of the Russian arms created lively apprehensions in the west, particularly in England, to whom Turkey appealed for mediation. Angry negotiations between England and Russia. Meanwhile the Porte was obliged to ask for peace directly of Russia, which in the

1878. Agreement of Adrianople

Jan. 31. granted a preliminary truce, and sketched the plan of a future peace.

1878, Feb. 1. Greece sent her troops into Thessaly, but was induced to withdraw them after a few days.

After the Russians had drawn their lines closer and closer about Constantinople and had occupied Erzeroum in Armenia, and a part of the English fleet which was lying before the Dardanelles had entered the Sea of Marmora, the

March 3. Peace of San Stefano (near Constantinople)

was concluded between Russia and Turkey: 1. Montenegro and Servia received considerable additions from Turkish territory, and were recognized as independent; likewise, Roumania. 2. Bulgaria, i. e. the larger part of ancient Masia, Thrace, and Macedonia (boundaries: Danube, the Black Sea and Egean Sea, Albania and Servia) remained tributary to the Porte, but received a Christian prince, separate administration and militia; a Russian commissary with 50,000 men was to remain two years in the country. 3. The Porte was to introduce certain reforms in the small portion of his European possessions which remained to him. 4. Turkey paid Russia 300 million rubles, and ceded large parts of Armenia in Asia and the Dobrudsha in Europe, Russia agreeing to give the latter to Roumania in return for the part of Bessarabia (p. 501) which she had ceded in 1856.

This peace aroused great opposition in the west, especially in England, which showed herself ready to go to war with Russia in case the latter insisted on the execution of the above conditions. Austria also began to arm.

June 4. The Porte concluded a treaty with England (at first secret), wherein the latter undertook to protect Turkey in Asia against Russian conquest. The Porte, however, promised to introduce reforms in these parts, and gave up the island of Cyprus to England (Cyprus occupied July 11).

Germany having mediated between Russia and England, to prevent war, and three powers having come to a preliminary understanding, the

1878, June 13-July 13. Congress of Berlin

met under the presidency of prince Bismarck.

Principal conditions: 1. Montenegro, Servia, Roumania, became independent, but the cessions to be made to the two former states were somewhat reduced, while the territory which Roumania was to receive in exchange for Bessarabia was somewhat enlarged. 2. The principality of Bulgaria was limited to the country between the Danube and the Balkans, including, however, Sophia and its territory. (An assembly of notables elected prince Alexander of Battenberg (Hesse), a nephew of the Russian emperor, April, 1879.) 3. The southern portion of Bulgaria, with its boundaries considerably narrowed toward the south and west, was left under the immediate rule of the sultans, with the title Province of East Roumelia, but received a separate militia, and administration under a Christian governor-general; only in specified cases could it be occupied by regular Turkish troops. 4. The Russian troops were to evacuate East Roumelia and Bulgaria inside of nine months, Roumania inside of a year. 5. The Porte ceded to Austria the military occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as the military occupation of the Sandshak of Novi Bazar. 6. The Porte was advised to cede a part of Epirus and Thessaly to Greece. 7. Russia received in Asia Batoum (as a free harbor), Kars, Ardaghan, and some border territories. 8. In Turkey, and all the states which had been separated from her, there should be political equality of all confessions.

1878. Death of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy (p. 503). Jan. 9. He was succeeded by his son, Umberto (Humbert) I. Feb. 7.

Death of pope Pius IX. He was succeeded by Leo XIII. (Pecci). May 11 and June 2. Attempted assassination of the German emperor William I., who at the second attempt was somewhat dangerously wounded. In consequence, law against the excesses of the social democrats.

1878.

Entrance of the Austrians into Bosnia and HerzegoJuly 29. vina, where part of the inhabitants offered armed resistance until autumn (1879, occupation of the Lim territory). 1879. In the German empire excited discussion of changes advocated by prince Bismarck in the tariff and economical policy (new tariff, July). Attempted reconciliation with the Pope. The

Prussian minister of religion (Falk since 1872) retired; his successor, Von Puttkamer (July 14).

Russia assuming a hostile attitude, and attempting to form an alliance with France against Germany,

Sept. 21-24. Bismarck visited Vienna, and a defensive alliance was concluded between Prussia and Austria.

Oct. 1. The new system of jurisprudence for the entire German empire went in force (supreme court in Leipzig).

1880. The boldness of the Nihilists in Russia continuing to increase Feb. in spite of the severe measures of the government (three desperate attempts upon the life of Alexander II. inside of ten months), general Loris-Melikoff was clothed with a sort of dictatorial power, but endeavored to prevent the imminent dangers by concessions.

Conflict with the papacy in regard to ecclesiastical orders and new laws relating to education in France, and still more sharply in Belgium (liberal ministry of Frère Orban since 1878).

In Prussia, all negotiations with the papacy proving vain, certain limitations of the existing laws relating to the church (p. 520) were introduced as an attempt to reach the desired result by political legislation.

The resolutions of the congress of Berlin had never been completely carried into execution, in part because of the resistance of the Albanian league (secretly aided by the Porte ?) to the cessions made to Montenegro, and also because the negotiations relative to a surrender of territory to Greece had been without result. Hence the June 16-July 1. Conference of Berlin

was called, which delivered to the Porte certain distinct propositions in regard to these questions (Thessaly and Epirus with Janina to be given to Greece), which should eventually be enforced by armed interference. The Porte still delaying, a squadron of vessels of all the great powers assembled at Ragusa (Sept.). This demonstration produced the

Nov. Surrender of Dulcigno and territory to Montenegro.

1881, March 13. Alexander II. murdered in St. Petersburg. He was succeeded by his son,

1881-x. Alexander III.

Roumania made a kingdom..

March-April. Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople. The Porte decided to carry out the surrender of territory to Greece, though to a somewhat smaller extent than was indicated by the Berlin conference.

Sept. 8. Meeting of William I. of Germany and Alexander III. of Russia at Danzig.

1882. Disturbances in southern Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Bosnia. Jan. Dispatch of Austrian troops to these points.

Jan. 7. Excitement created in Prussia by the publication of a royal rescript, attacking the theory of responsible ministers, and announcing that all persons in government service were expected to support the government at elections.

1881, Jan. 21. Passage of the electoral reform bill in Italy. Suffrage conferred on all male Italians over twenty-one years of age, who possessed either (1) a certain amount of property or (2) a certain amount of education. Adoption of the scrutin de liste; minority representation in districts returning five or more deputies.

Feb. 11. Lectures in the Czechish (Bohemian) language established in the university of Prague.

Feb. 21. Trial of persons accused of being concerned in the murder of the czar of Russia. In spite of some concessions to the peasants, and of the continuance of vigorous repressive measures, undaunted activity of the nihilists.

March 6. Servia made a kingdom; prince Milan king as Milan I. March 10. Suppression of the disturbances in Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia by the Austrians.

Tendency in the German Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag to come to terms with Rome and the clerical party (autumn). Approaching end of the Kulturkampf.

April 10. Retirement of Gortschakoff, minister of foreign affairs in Russia; he was succeeded by De Giers; this change, regarded as an assurance of peaceful intentions, quieted the apprehensions which had been aroused by the anti-Teutonic invectives of Skobeleff in Paris and elsewhere (Skobeleff, † July 7). May 22. Opening of the St. Gothard railroad across the Alps. (Begun 1872, tunnel 9 miles long.)

June 2. Death of Giuseppi Garibaldi (b. 1807, at Nice; conspirator in 1833; in Montevideo, in South America, 1835; defense of Rome, 1849; in North America, 1854; service against Austria, 1859, 1860; unsuccessful attempts upon Rome, 1862, 1867; participation in the Franco-Prussian war, 1870, 1871; member of the Italian chamber of deputies, 1875).

Rejection of the tobacco monopoly advocated by Bismarck, in the German Reichstag.

1882, June 21. Expiration of the Storthing in Norway. Violent royal speech rebuking the opposition. Constitutional struggle over the royal veto, and presence of ministers in the Storthing. Sept. Anti-Jewish riots, especially at Pressburg (Sept. 27-30). Sept.-Nov. New elections in Norway. Return of an increased radical majority.

First restoration, Apr. 6. Royal proclamation of a liberal constitution (charte constitutionelle), June 4, 1814: hereditary monarchy; two chambers (peers nominated by the king, lower house elected by the people); freedom of the press; religious liberty; responsible ministers; judges not removable. Return of Napoleon. The Hundred Days (Mar. 20-June 22), see page 483. Fall of Napoleon.