authority may of course be viewed as an inheritanee from Judaism; for the religion of the Bible had been taught in this way by the Jewish church before the time of Christ (chap. xxii, p. 213). But under Judaism and Christianity alike, the dogma of theological authority has been supported and vitalized by the authoritative organization of society, in which the many have been subordinate to the few.

The greatest name in Christian theology, as thus viewed, is undoubtedly that of Augustine, a citizen of the Roman empire in the fourth and fifth centuries (354-430 A.D.). This theologian "submitted himself absolutely to the tradition of the Church," and "he established more securely in the West the ancient ecclesiastical tradition as authority and law.” He was the master of the Middle Ages in theology. "The history of piety and of dogmas in the West was so thoroughly dominated by Augustine from the beginning of the fifth century to the era of the Reformation, that we must take this whole time as forming one period." Thus, the idea of religion as a matter of external authority continued to be the prevailing doctrine throughout the Middle Ages; and it survives in many minds up to the present time. According to this view, the religion of the Bible took its origin from a revelation external to the mind of man. The inspired mind was an instrument by which the Bible-idea of God came into the world; such a mind was a channel through which common folk received their instruction in religious matters. On this view,

the men who wrote the Bible took the part of spirit mediums, acting as intermediaries between heaven and earth, transmitting messages from God to man. From the standpoint of this conception, there can be, of course, no problem of religion and hence no problem of the Bible. This theory con

1 Harnack, History of Dogma (Boston, 1899), Vol. V, p. 5 (italics ours). 2 Harnack, op. cit., p. 3. This does not exhaust the significance of Augustine as a thinker; but the other aspects of his work do not call for mention here.

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templates the religion of the Bible as an ordinance promulgated by the Almighty; and it regards the Bible as dictated by God, and hence "infallible." A mantle of mystery was thrown around this entire subject all through the Middle Ages:

During this vast period one type of exegesis is found throughout the Church. . . . . In the mediaeval period of the Church, as in the Talmudic period of the Synagogue, an orthodox theology, resting on tradition which was interpreted and backed by ecclesiastical authority, discountenanced or anathematized independent investigation of Scrip

ture.1

The general position of the mediaeval church is well stated in the following words:

As the sole legatee of the Roman Empire, the Church is the predominant power of the Middle Ages. Outside of the Church there can be no salvation and no science. The dogmas formulated by her represent the truth. Hence, the problem is no longer to search for it. The Church has no place for philosophy, if we mean by philosophy the pursuit of truth. From the mediaeval point of view, to philosophize means to explain the dogma, to deduce its consequences, and to demonstrate its truth. Hence, philosophy is identical with positive theology. . . . . The mediaeval Church is both church and school, the depositary of the means of salvation and the dispenser of profane instruction. As long as the people continued in a state of barbarism, the power which she exercised in this double capacity was beneficent, legitimate, and necessary."

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1 Gilbert, History of the Interpretation of the Bible (New York, 1908), pp. 146, 179. 2 Weber, History of Philosophy (New York, 1904), pp. 201, 202, 275.

CHAPTER XXXI

JUSTIFICATION BY WORKS

The mediaeval church was grounded on the doctrine of "justification by works."-The ruling tendency in religion during the Middle Ages can be deduced from the superior social position of the church. We have seen that the clergy were part of the upper class, and that the church machine was part of the state. The church was therefore a corporation enjoying "special privileges." It had an economic advantage, or hold, whereby it could impose various kinds of taxes on the people. It accumulated large landed estates, and was therefore a landlord. It owned serf-slaves, and exploited their labor. It operated the ecclesiastical courts, ton, The which presided over many matters now coming within the purview of secular law. It charged fees for divine service. Since Church and State were united, membership in the church was an element of citizenship, and was therefore involuntary. A man was answerable to the ecclesiastical powers in regard to many things; and he came within the jurisdiction of the church whether he wanted to or not.

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In order to be justified in the sight of the church, a man must give the ecclesiastical authorities either labor, or money got by laboring. Otherwise he was not right with the church, and therefore not right with God. The church, represented by its priesthood, was the intermediary between man and God. From the economic standpoint, therefore, the position of the mediaeval church may be described as that of "justification by works." This definition of the church and religion during the Middle Ages accords with the superior economic and legal place of the church in society at that time. Although this formulation had no place in the official theology and would

have been denied by the clergy, it states the entire case from the economic point of view.

To give this definition of mediaeval religion is neither to decry nor to commend the church. All historians and sociological investigators admit that the church included possibilities of good and evil. The situation took its course as a matter of historic necessity. Wherever men have advanced from savagery into civilization, they have passed through a system of sharply defined upper and lower classes; and religion has been a factor in political and state life. Christianity had to be established in the world through existing social institutions; else it would have perished. At the beginning of the Middle Ages, the church was a great civilizing force. At the close of that epoch, however, the more progressive part of society was in religious revolt; and the protest against “justification by works" was one of the factors leading out from the Middle Ages into modern times.

In the concluding part of our study, we shall examine the Bible and its religion in the modern world.